Fun with words

Turning Words on their Head with Asteismus

Roopa Banerjee “Can you lend me a hand?” “Sure, but I might need it back later.” This playful exchange of words between two speakers presents a typical example of asteismus, a witty retort or banter where a word or phrase is used in a meaning different from its original use, often in a humorous and ironic way. The subtlety of asteismus lies in how the response reinterprets or twists the initial question or statement. Asteismus has its roots in ancient Greek and is derived from the word asteios, meaning city-bred or polished, in reference to the refined, sophisticated humour typical of city-dwellers. The ancient Greeks valued this type of wit as a mark of sophistication and intellect. Over time, it evolved to describe a specific type of repartee that plays on double meanings of words. In English literature, asteismus was adopted to describe witty banter that turns on wordplay, particularly when the second speaker humorously reinterprets or subverts the first speaker’s words. The use of asteismus in literature allows writers to craft clever dialogue that reveals characters’ intellect, mood, and interpersonal dynamics. Some of the most iconic examples are from classical literature and well-known plays. In Shakespeare’s Twelfth Night, asteismus is frequently used, particularly in witty exchanges between characters. A notable instance is between Maria and Sir Andrew Aguecheek: Maria: “My purpose is, indeed, a horse of that colour.” Sir Andrew: “And your horse now would make him an ass.” Maria uses a phrase which means something of the same kind, and Sir Andrew humorously twists it into a literal image, turning it into a quip about foolishness. The repartee is not just amusing but also revealing of Sir Andrew’s foolishness, as he doesn’t fully understand the complexity of Maria’s wordplay. Similarly, Oscar Wilde’s The Importance of Being Earnest was a masterpiece of witty dialogue, often using asteismus to entertain and comment on societal norms. In one scene, Gwendolen and Cecily engage in verbal sparring: Gwendolen: “You have filled my tea with lumps of sugar, and though I ask most distinctly for bread and butter, you have given me cake.” Cecily: “I am sorry. But I thought you liked cake.” The humour arises from Cecily’s feigned innocence and literal interpretation of Gwendolen’s remark, twisting her words to expose the absurdity of the situation. Wilde use asteismus to subtly critique the pretensions of the upper class. Asteismus isn’t confined to classic literature. It’s alive and well in modern pop culture, especially in TV shows and films. In the popular sitcom Friends, asteismus is often used to create comedic tension. A classic exchange between Chandler and Joey: Chandler: “Do you know what’s a great icebreaker?” Joey: “Is it ice?” Here, Joey takes Chandler’s metaphorical ‘icebreaker’ and interprets it literally, subverting the original meaning with a naive but humorous response. However, asteismus is more than just a tool to convey wit and humour in literature and cinema. For example, in Shakespeare’s work, asteismus often signals a character’s superiority in intelligence or social standing.…

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Look before you leap with Dehortatio

Roopa Banerjee Some or the other time in life we have heard advice such as ‘Never look a gift horse in the mouth’ or ‘Never get taken in by flattery’? What’s common in these sane suggestions is that the advice dissuades us from doing something. Known as dehortatio, it serves to deter or advise against a particular action, and is often used to add depth to dialogue, highlight a character’s wisdom, and enhance the narrative’s persuasive elements. Dehortatio originates from the Latin verb dehortari, which means to dissuade or advise against. In rhetorical terms, dehortatio is the opposite of ‘hortatio’ or ‘adhortatio,’ which involves urging someone to take action. While hortatio encourages, dehortatio discourages, often using reasoning, moral arguments, and appeals to common sense to achieve its purpose. Dehortatio is a useful writing device for persuasive narration. An interesting example is in Charles Dickens’s Great Expectations where Joe Gargery uses dehortatio to advise Pip against becoming too proud and abandoning his humble roots. Joe gently cautions Pip: “If you can’t get to be uncommon through going straight, you’ll never get to do it through going crooked.” Joe’s words serve to dissuade Pip from forsaking his values and the simple, honest life that shaped him. Similarly, in Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice, Mr. Bennet employs dehortatio when advising his daughter Elizabeth against marrying Mr. Collins. He understands Elizabeth’s strong-willed nature and her disdain for Mr. Collins’s obsequiousness. Mr. Bennet says: “An unhappy alternative is before you, Elizabeth. From this day, you must be a stranger to one of your parents. Your mother will never see you again if you do not marry Mr. Collins, and I will never see you again if you do.” This statement is a powerful dehortatio, dissuading Elizabeth from making a decision that would lead to personal unhappiness, thereby supporting her autonomy and emotional well-being. Dehortatio abounds in many recent works of fiction, as well. In the iconic sci-fi film The Matrix, Morpheus uses dehortatio when he warns Neo about the nature of the Matrix and the consequences of taking the red pill. Morpheus cautions Neo that once he takes the red pill, there is no turning back. “This is your last chance. After this, there is no turning back. You take the blue pill — the story ends, you wake up in your bed and believe whatever you want to believe. You take the red pill — you stay in Wonderland, and I show you how deep the rabbit hole goes.” Morpheus’s warning is a classic example of dehortatio, advising Neo to consider the gravity of his choice and the irreversible consequences that come with knowledge of the Matrix. In the Bollywood blockbuster 3 Idiots, Farhan is torn between following his passion for wildlife photography and adhering to his father’s wish for him to become an engineer. His friend, Rancho, uses dehortatio to advise Farhan against giving up on his dreams to pursue a career that doesn’t fulfill him. He counsels Farhan to follow his passion,…

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Walking the talk with ethos

Roopa Banerjee We often come across sentences so strong in ethics that we are drawn to the character uttering them. This is a subtle literary device known as ‘ethos’ which introduces the ethical appeal and credibility established by the author or speaker to persuade audiences. Rooted in ancient Greek philosophy, ethos is one of Aristotle’s three modes of persuasion, alongside logos (logic) and pathos (emotion). Through strategic use of ethos, writers and speakers build trust, authority, and credibility with their audience, thereby enhancing the effectiveness of their narrative or argument. Ethos is derived from the eponymous Greek word meaning character or custom. In ancient Greece, ethos referred to the moral character or reputation of an individual or community. It represented the guiding beliefs, values, and principles that shaped people’s conduct and behaviour. Over time, ethos evolved into a rhetorical concept, emphasising the importance of establishing credibility and trustworthiness when seeking to persuade others. In literature, ethos manifests through various devices, including depiction of characters, author’s voice, and overall tone of the narrative. Authors use ethos to establish themselves as reliable narrators and to imbue their characters with qualities that command the respect and admiration of the audience. A classic example of ethos in literature is in The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald. “Whenever you feel like criticizing anyone,” he told me, “just remember that all the people in this world haven’t had the advantages that you’ve had.” This opening sentence establishes the credibility of Nick Carraway, the narrator with the audience. In this tale of wealth and class, readers understand that Nick benefits from some advantages, but he is aware of not misusing them. Similarly, in William Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar, Mark Antony’s funeral oration is a masterful display of ethos in rhetoric. By associating himself with Caesar’s reign, Antony tries to influence the crowd’s emotion, turning them against the conspirators responsible for Caesar’s assassination. Through his compelling appeal to the sentiments of the crowd and his depiction of Caesar as an admirable leader, Antony establishes his credibility and influence, ultimately rousing the mob to rebel against Brutus and other conspirators. Ethos was the literary device for supplementing Antony’s emotional appeal. In the modern world, ethos is used in almost every advertisement. In a commercial featuring a dentist recommending a specific toothpaste brand, the dentist’s credibility and expertise serves as ethos to persuade viewers to trust the product’s effectiveness. Here, ethos subtly but effectively shapes audience perceptions and influences consumer behaviour. Similarly, a famous athlete endorsing a sports drink makes the advertisement far more effective. In the television series Breaking Bad, the character of Walter White undergoes a transformation from a mild-mannered high school chemistry teacher to a ruthless drug lord. Despite his descent into criminality, Walter initially presents himself as a devoted family man driven by a desire to provide for his loved ones at a time of terminal illness. This portrayal of Walter’s character appeals to viewers’ sympathies and underscores the complexity of his moral descent, thereby engaging…

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Mind Games with Reverse Psychology

Roopa Banerjee Reverse psychology is a strategy that involves encouraging someone to do the opposite of what is wanted; often resulting in them doing what was originally intended. Did you know that reverse psychology is an oft-used literary device in fiction writing? It enables authors to manipulate characters and advance plotlines. The term ‘reverse psychology’ emerged in the field of behavioural psychology in the mid-20th century. It is rooted in the idea of manipulating human behaviour by presenting a reverse motivation or suggestion. The prefix ‘reverse’ denotes a reversal or opposite action, while ‘psychology’ refers to the study of mind and behaviour. In literature, authors often use reverse psychology to add complexity to characters and drive storylines. A classic example is Othello by William Shakespeare. The villainous character Iago uses reverse psychology to manipulate Othello into believing that his wife, Desdemona, is unfaithful. By pretending to downplay the significance of Desdemona’s alleged infidelity, Iago plants seeds of doubt in Othello’s mind, leading to tragic consequences. Another interesting example of reverse psychology in literature is George Orwell’s dystopian novel 1984. In the novel’s authoritarian society, the government employs reverse psychology to control its citizens. By presenting contradictory information and encouraging doublethink, the Party manipulates citizens into accepting its oppressive rule. The Party’s slogan, ‘War is Peace, Freedom is Slavery, Ignorance is Strength,’ shows the use of reverse psychology to distort reality and retain power by confusing the populace. In the novel Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain, Huck Finn uses reverse psychology to navigate several situations. For instance, when he wants to convince others to do something, he often pretends to discourage it, knowing that they will be more likely to comply if they think it is their idea. In Jane Austen’s Pride and Prejudice, when Mr. Darcy proposes to Elizabeth Bennet, he uses reverse psychology by highlighting all the reasons why their match would be improper. He mentions Elizabeth’s lower social status and her family’s lack of propriety as reasons why he should not propose. However, this makes Elizabeth more determined to reject his reasoning. In popular culture, reverse psychology is frequently employed in films and television shows. A notable example is the Hollywood film Inception directed by Christopher Nolan. The main protagonist Dom Cobb uses reverse psychology to plant an idea in the mind of his target by convincing him not to perform a specific action. By framing the suggestion as an act of defiance against authority, Cobb exploits the target’s subconscious resistance and successfully manipulates his behaviour. Another instance is provided in the television series Breaking Bad. In a memorable episode, Walter White employs reverse psychology to manipulate his brother-in-law, Hank Schrader, a DEA agent. Walter feigns ignorance and downplays his involvement in illegal activities to effectively deflect suspicion and casts doubt on Hank’s investigative process. In literature and popular culture, reverse psychology serves as a compelling narrative device that adds depth to characters, drives plot twists, and explores themes of manipulation and control. Whether used by…

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The Power of Less with Understatement

Roopa Banerjee An understatement is a literary device where the author deliberately diminishes or plays down the importance or intensity of a situation, typically for rhetorical or satirical purposes. Or paradoxically, for emphasis. Understatements are used to emphasise the exact traits that they downplay. When used ironically, they provide humour and effect. When used literally, they downplay expressions that would otherwise seem immodest, such as saying “I did alright” after winning an Oscar. Understatement is the opposite of hyperbole which is overstatement. The word understatement has its roots in Latin and Old French. The Latin (and English) word ‘under’ means beneath, and the Old French ‘estimer’ means to estimate or appraise. Over time, these merged to form the concept of saying less than is meant. Consequently understatement, as a literary device, gained prominence for its ability to create impact through restraint. In fiction writing, understatement serves various purposes. It can be used for humour, as seen in comedic literature. On the other hand, it adds depth to tragic moments by allowing readers to infer emotions rather than have them explicitly stated. Authors use understatement to subtly guide readers’ interpretations, allowing for a more immersive and participatory reading experience. It is a delicate brushstroke that invites readers to engage actively with the text, drawing on their insights and emotions. Understatement has been extensively used in literature. In Jane Austen’s classic Pride and Prejudice, it is deftly used to describe the tumultuous relationship between Elizabeth Bennet and Mr. Darcy. When Darcy proposes to Elizabeth, she responds with an understatement that echoes through the pages: “You are too generous to trifle with me. If your feelings are still what they were last April, tell me so at once. My affections and wishes are unchanged, but one word from you will silence me on this subject for ever.” In this exchange, the restrained language masks the intensity of emotions. The impact lies in what is not explicitly stated — unspoken feelings and the gravity of the situation. In another example, Ernest Hemingway, known for his economical and impactful prose, uses understatement deftly in The Old Man and the Sea. When the old man, Santiago, catches a giant marlin, the understated language heightens the significance of the achievement: “He was an old man who fished alone in a skiff in the Gulf Stream and he had gone eighty-four days now without taking a fish.” Here, Santiago’s prolonged struggle and resilience are downplayed through the simplicity of the statement, emphasising the solitary nature of the old man’s venture. In more recent times, the superhit sitcom The Office is famous for its use of understatement to create humour. A notable example is when Michael Scott, the bumbling regional manager, tries to downplay a fire in the office. Amid the chaos, he calmly declares, “All right, it’s happening! Everybody stay calm!” The understated delivery amplifies the absurdity of the situation and provokes laughter. In Hollywood’s classic movie Casablanca, Rick Blaine mouths a famous understatement as he bids farewell…

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Locking horns with your Nemesis

Roopa Banerjee “This cricket match is a classic showdown as each team considers the other its nemesis.” “I can’t believe we have to present our projects on the same day as Anil. He’s my academic nemesis; his presentations are always top-notch.” We often use the word nemesis in our daily conversations without realising that it’s a popular literary device used by writers. It is named after nemesis, the goddess of revenge, retribution and divine justice in Greek literature, who wreaked vengeance through varied mystical ways. Her name is derived from the Greek word nemein, which means “to give what is due”. In fiction writing, nemesis is a powerful and recurring theme. Authors often use it to add depth to their narratives and to ensure that characters face the consequences of their choices. This literary device creates tension, drama, and a sense of moral order within the story. A classic example of nemesis in literature is in William Shakespeare’s tragedy Macbeth. Driven by ambition and manipulated by supernatural forces, Macbeth commits heinous crimes to grab power. However, his nemesis comes in the form of Macduff, a Scottish nobleman who brings about his downfall. Macduff, acting as an agent of justice and retribution, fulfils the role of nemesis in the play. Another literary example of nemesis is in Fyodor Dostoevsky’s novel Crime and Punishment. The protagonist, Raskolnikov, is convinced that the murder he committed was to achieve a greater good. However, his nemesis appears in the form of the persistent and astute police detective, Porfiry Petrovich. Throughout the novel, Porfiry serves as Raskolnikov’s moral and intellectual nemesis, leading to the latter’s confession and redemption. Nemesis is used widely in cinema, television shows and comic books. A notable example is the character Joker in DC Comics, and in Christopher Nolan’s movie The Dark Knight. Batman’s arch-nemesis, the Joker, embodies chaos and anarchy, challenging Batman’s sense of justice and morality. The Joker’s conduct becomes Batman’s personal nemesis, illustrating the ongoing conflict between order and chaos. Another pop culture example of nemesis is in the television series Breaking Bad. The protagonist, Walter White, transforms from a mild-mannered chemistry teacher into a ruthless drug lord. Hank Schrader, Walter’s brother-in-law and detective, becomes Walter’s nemesis. Hank’s pursuit of justice and discovery of Walter’s criminal activities add a layer of tension and certainty to the narrative. In Arthur Conan Doyle’s classic Sherlock Holmes series, Professor Moriarty is the arch-nemesis of Sherlock Holmes. Moriarty, a criminal mastermind, engages in a battle of wits with Holmes throughout the series. In the Harry Potter series by J.K. Rowling, dark wizard Lord Voldemort is the primary nemesis of Harry. Their conflict forms the central narrative arc throughout the series. Voldemort becomes the embodiment of evil in the wizarding world and poses a constant threat to Harry and his friends. The animosity between Harry and Voldemort is deeply rooted, and their final confrontation in Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows is culmination of the nemesis dynamic that has been building throughout the books.…

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Out of thin air with deus ex machina

Roopa Banerjee Have you read a book or watched a movie where a problem in the plot seems insurmountable and then suddenly a new character or plot twist helps everything fall into place? Did it feel contrived, or did you believe the author resorted to it to end the story in a convincing manner? Well, what you have read/seen is a legitimate literary device known as deus ex machina. It is used to resolve a seemingly insurmountable problem in a story plot by adding in an unexpected turn. Deus ex machina has Latin origins and literally means ‘God in the machine’. Literature abounds with deus ex machina. The earliest use is in Greek drama which had a tradition of lowering or lifting characters who played Greek gods on stage. Thus, deus ex machina literally referred to machines which lifted gods as characters. Greek playwrights Aeschylus and Euripides extensively used this device in their dramas. Aristotle created the Greek label for deus ex machina in his thesis on literary study theory, Poetics. Like several other literary scholars, Aristotle detested this device and observed that it made the plot implausible. His argument was that the deduction of a plot should appear spontaneously from occurrences that the author has previously created. Many agreed with him that deus ex machina was too contrived. However despite its usage being frowned upon, many authors continue to use it for comic purposes. Examples abound in the James Bond series (and similar espionage series such as Mission Impossible) where Bond invariably uses an invented device that is exactly what he needs just in that moment to save his life. It’s a ‘hey presto!’ moment with the device working wonders to save him. Similarly, in Monty Python’s comedy movie Life of Brian, viewers experience a feeling of being duped when he falls off a tower and is saved by a spaceship of aliens that just happens to be conveniently flying by. Likewise in Harry Potter, enormous eagles arrive to save Gandalf when he was trapped atop a tower with seemingly no chance of escape. Another interesting example is in the movie Raiders of the Lost Ark where enemies tie Indiana Jones to a pole and when they open the Ark of the Covenant, angels of death emerge miraculously and save Jones. But the one that takes the cake is in Jurassic Park where the protagonist children are trapped by velociraptors and about to die, tyrannosaurus rex attacks and kills the velociraptors, but not the children. Thank goodness for deus ex machina, is all we can say. In literature, William Shakespeare used deus ex machina in interesting ways. For instance in As You Like It, he used it unapologetically to provide comedy and humour. Most Shakespearean comedies end in several marriages which happen with the use of this device. Some literary experts like deus ex machina while others hate it. But no one can ignore it! Exercise Here are five books that use deus ex machina. Who are their authors:…

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Embroidering stories with Motifs

Roopa Banerjee Did you ever wonder why most fairy tales have an older female villain character? For instance, the wicked stepmother in Cinderella and Snow White. In A Little Mermaid, the sea-witch is an aging woman who yearns for youth and beauty. These characters are examples of a literary device known as motif — a recurrent element (such as an image, sound, or idea) reiterated throughout the story to develop a central theme/ message. The origin of the word motif is French, and means pattern. In the vast tapestry of literature, authors often use a varied range of literary devices to weave intricate narratives that resonate with readers on multiple levels. Motifs stand out as recurring elements that thread through the fabric of a story, introducing depth, cohesion, and often, profound symbolism. A motif need not necessarily be a character in a story. It could be an object, image, sound, idea, word or even a phrase. In Kurt Vonnegut’s novel Slaughterhouse Five, a phrase marks every death in the book: “So it goes.” The phrase is inevitable, much like death itself, and pulls the reader’s attention to the book’s larger theme of inescapability. The phrase “so it goes” is used as a motif with great symbolic significance. It provides depth to the story. Motifs catch our attention on an intuitive level. However, if you don’t pay close attention you can easily miss a story’s motif. Authors also use motifs to create suspense and uncertainty. For example, in A Series of Unfortunate Events, author Lemony Snicket uses the acronym ‘VFD’ all through the narrative to indicate the Baudelaire children are in danger. This creates a sensation of suspense every time the reader spots the three letters in succession (e.g. Volunteer Feline Detectives, Voluntary Fish Domestication). A more common way of using motifs is to create symbolism. In The Godfather, director Francis Ford Coppola uses motif by repeatedly featuring oranges around scenes of death. Another example of a motif is in Hamlet by William Shakespeare. Every time the reader encounters worms, maggots, or skulls, they’re directed to reflect on the broader themes of death and mortality. The most prominent motif in literature is in Harper Lee’s famous novel, To Kill a Mockingbird. The motif of the mockingbird appears during specific moments to symbolise innocence and integrity. As a motif, the mockingbird keeps reminding the reader of the book’s main theme. Similarly, in Jane Eyre by Charlotte Brontë, the motif of fire surfaces in many ways throughout the novel. It depicts comfort as well as destruction. Also, characters are described with words like hot and fire. However, every symbol appearing in a story is not a motif. For instance, a scale is often a symbol of justice, a flag may symbolize freedom, and a crown power. Even though these are used symbolically, if the author mentions it only once, then it’s not a motif. Motifs need to appear consistently during important moments all through the story. Exercise Here are 5 books which use…

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A mirror to reflect with CHIASMUS

Roopa Banerjee “Working hard, or hardly working?” Such reversal of words is known as chiasmus. A popular literary device, it has been used for centuries in literature, speeches, and pop culture to capture readers’ attention, stimulate reflection, and leave a lasting impact. In the realm of literary devices, chiasmus stands out as a beautifully symmetrical and thought-provoking figure of speech that adds depth and flair to fiction writing. Derived from the Greek word khiásmos, meaning ‘crosswise arrangement’, chiasmus involves reversal of the order of words or phrases in parallel clauses to create a mirror-image effect. This mirror effect is key to identifying chiasmus. In ancient Greece, chiasmus was used to describe a rhetorical or literary figure of speech characterised by a crosswise arrangement of elements. The word itself is derived from the Greek letter ‘chi’ (Χ), which resembles the English letter ‘X’. This symbolism reflects the way chiasmus works, creating a crisscross pattern of words or ideas in a sentence or phrase. A prominent example of chiasmus is the famous line of former US President John F. Kennedy: “Ask not what your country can do for you; ask what you can do for your country”. The words ‘ask’ and ‘country’ are mirrored in reverse order in the second part of the sentence. This chiasmus adds symmetry and elegance to the statement and encourages citizens to consider their role in contributing to nation building. In fiction writing, chiasmus plays a balancing act of words and ideas. For instance, the sentence “Fair is foul, and foul is fair” by William Shakespeare in Macbeth. The reversal of ‘fair’ and ‘foul’ emphasises the moral confusion and inversion of values in the play. Shakespeare frequently used chiasmus in his writing to convey complex themes. “Don’t let school interfere with your education” is a witty chiasmus of American novelist Mark Twain which humorously challenges the conventional notion of learning within the structured environment of a school. It urges individuals to seek knowledge beyond formal education. “You can take the boy out of the country, but you can’t take the country out of the boy” is another clever way of using chiasmus. In the world of fiction writing, chiasmus serves as a versatile literary device to enhance storytelling. Authors use chiasmus to give depth to their characters’ speech and dialogues. A character who frequently uses chiasmus might come across as more reflective, philosophical, and poetic. Chiasmus helps emphasise key themes, ideas, and emotions in a narrative. More important, it creates memorable and impactful dialogues between characters by adding a layer of complexity and depth to their conversations. Chiasmus is a delicate balancing act of words and ideas, and its power lies in its ability to challenge readers’ expectations. It serves as a reminder that language is not merely conveyance of information but a tool for artistic expression. When used effectively, chiasmus leads to a deeper understanding of the text and its underlying themes. As words crisscross and mirror each other, chiasmus becomes a reflection of the complexities…

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Cutting words and fiery phrases with invectives

Roopa Banerjee In fiction writing, writers use a wide array of literary devices to express emotions, create compelling characters, and enhance the narrative. One such powerful literary device is invective, which allows writers to unleash scathing criticism or vehement disapproval of individuals, ideas, and institutions. The word invective traces its roots to the Latin invectivus, which means abusive or insulting. It is characterised by its strong, censorious language and often uses hyperbole to express disapproval and disdain. Writers use invective to evoke strong emotional response in readers and to develop complex characters, generate conflict, illuminate societal issues, and heighten dramatic tension within the narrative. William Shakespeare used invectives very effectively in all his plays. For example in The Tragedy of King Lear: “A knave, a rascal; an eater of broken meats; a base, proud, shallow, beggarly, three-suited, hundred-pound, filthy, worsted-stocking knave… and art nothing but the composition of a knave, beggar, coward, pandar, and the son and heir of a mongrel …” Strong condemnation! Another example is in A Counterblast to Tobacco written by James IV — “A custom loathsome to the eye, hateful to the nose, harmful to the brain, dangerous to the lungs, and in the black, stinking fume thereof, nearest resembling the Stygian smoke of the pit that is bottomless.” Likewise, in The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, Mark Twain uses invective to tackle themes of racism and social injustice. Through the character of Pap, Huck Finn’s abusive and racist father, Twain uses invective to depict deplorable racism and discrimination. Pop culture has many examples of invective. In the TV series, Game of Thrones, Tyrion Lannister, portrayed by Peter Dinklage, showcases invective through witty comments. Tyrion’s ability to verbally spar with other characters demonstrates his intelligence, sarcasm, and defiance in a world driven by power struggles. Sometimes, invective is used with irony, in a humorous tone as in the Hollywood movie The Devil Wears Prada. In this film adaptation of Lauren Weisberger’s novel, Miranda Priestly, played by Meryl Streep, employs invective to intimidate and criticise her subordinates. Miranda’s biting remarks, delivered with precision, use invective to convey power dynamics and establish her authority. Self-evidently, this literary device should be used with utmost care. When employed recklessly and without leash, invective can turn good literature into hate filled manuscript. Invective, by its nature, employs strong language and insults, which can offend or alienate readers. It may create a negative reading experience and reinforce stereotypes or biases if directed towards certain groups or individuals. Invective can also sometimes be misinterpreted or misunderstood. Readers may not grasp the intended tone or context, leading to confusion or unintended consequences. Finally, constant exposure to invectives throughout a narrative can be emotionally exhausting for readers and dampen the reading experience. In short, while invective is a potent literary device, writers must exercise caution and be aware of its disadvantages. Exercise Here are five literary works that have effectively used invective. Who are the authors of these books?: 1. A Clockwork Orange 2. American Psycho…

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Apples and oranges with non sequitur

Roopa Banerjee Fiction writers often use varied literary devices to create engaging and thought-provoking narratives. One such popular device is a non sequitur, a Latin term that translates to ‘it does not follow’. A non sequitur is a statement or event that has no logical connection to the preceding narrative. While logic may dictate a linear progression in storytelling, introducing non sequiturs adds intrigue, humour, and even philosophical depth to works of fiction. Non sequiturs are used in several ways. For instance, in humorous writing to surprise and amuse readers. A sudden, unexpected statement or event provokes laughter because it deviates from logical expectation. Also, they introduce an element of absurdity or surrealism into a narrative, challenging the boundaries of reality within a fictional world. This is particularly effective in genres such as magical realism and absurdist literature. A prominent example is in Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland by Lewis Carroll. Carroll’s whimsical tale is replete with non sequiturs. For instance, when Alice encounters the Mad Hatter’s Tea Party, the characters engage in absurd conversations that defy conventional logic. The Hatter’s famous riddle, “Why is a raven like a writing desk?” is a classic non sequitur, as it presents a question without a logical answer, leaving readers both puzzled and entertained. A more recent example is in Slaughterhouse-Five by Kurt Vonnegut. This anti-war novel uses non sequiturs to convey the disjointed and non-linear experiences of the protagonist, Billy Pilgrim. The narrative jumps back and forth in time, and events occur seemingly at random, creating a sense of temporal dislocation that mirrors the psychological trauma of war. Non sequiturs can be used in events as well. For instance, in Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix, Peeves the Poltergeist disrupts a school assembly by dropping water balloons on students’ heads, shouting nonsensical rhymes, and causing mayhem. These moments are classic non sequiturs, as they have no direct relevance to the main plot but add humour and chaos to Hogwarts School. In the cult Hollywood film Pulp Fiction directed by Quentin Tarantino, non sequiturs are woven into the dialogue to create moments of surprise and humour. For example, in the Royale with Cheese conversation between Jules and Vincent, they discuss the differences between American and European metric systems while on their way to a violent confrontation. This seemingly unrelated discussion adds an element of realism and humour to an intense situation. In The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerland, the charming Daisy Buchanan generously uses non sequiturs contributing to her air of sophistication and elusiveness. When describing her daughter, Daisy says, “I hope she’ll be a fool — that’s the best thing a girl can be in this world, a beautiful little fool.” This statement is a non sequitur, as it follows no logical progression in the conversation. However, it reveals Daisy’s disdain of societal expectations placed on women during the Jazz Age and her desire to shield her daughter from the harsh realities of the world. In conclusion, non sequiturs, while…

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A shadow of a doubt with Aporia

Roopa Banerjee “To be, or not to be: that is the question.” — William Shakespeare, Hamlet In the world of literature, authors use a diverse array of literary devices to engage readers, stir up emotions, and explore complex themes. One such intriguing literary device is aporia, a rhetorical and narrative technique that creates uncertainty or puzzlement in the story. It is demonstration of real or pretended doubt and confusion, used for symbolic effect. Aporia has its origins in ancient Greek, where it means ‘impasse’ or ‘perplexity’. It stems from the word ‘aporos,’ which combines ‘a’ (meaning ‘without’) and ‘poros’ (‘passage’ or ‘way’). Aporia is used to guide readers/listeners through complex moments in the narrative. The doubt expressed is not always real but when it is, it depicts the helplessness of the author/speaker, eliciting compassion from the audience/reader. When the doubt expressed is pretended, it triggers involvement from the audience. For instance, when the chief guest at an event to felicitate a celebrity begins his speech with, “Where do I start to express this?” he is using aporia to say that the person has so many good qualities that he doesn’t know where to start. In literature, authors use aporia to explore uncertainty, challenge assumptions, and engage readers in deeper contemplation. They use it to depict characters’ internal conflicts, create suspense, and highlight the complexity of moral or philosophical dilemmas. An early example of aporia is in Hamlet by William Shakespeare. In the soliloquy “To be or not to be” Hamlet grapples with the question of whether it is nobler to endure life’s suffering or to end it through suicide. Shakespeare uses aporia brilliantly to explore profound life dilemmas. Another example is in The Catcher in the Rye by J.D. Salinger where the protagonist, Holden Caulfield, frequently expresses aporia as he navigates the complexities of adolescence and adulthood. He often questions the authenticity of people’s actions and the phoniness of the adult world. The narrative is marked by moments of doubt and confusion, capturing the essence of aporia as a literary device that mirrors the uncertainty of youth. Several popular films have also used aporia to generate doubt and uncertainty in the minds of the audience. A recent example is in the blockbuster movie The Matrix which explores the theme of reality versus illusion, creating moments of aporia for the characters and audience. Neo, the protagonist, experiences doubt and confusion as he grapples with the revelation that the world he knows is simulated reality controlled by machines. This uncertainty drives the narrative and encourages viewers to question the nature of their own reality. Similarly in Christopher Nolan’s Inception, the lines between dreams and reality are blurred, creating ambiguity and perplexity. The characters’ uncertainty about the layers of dreams and consequences of their actions adds depth to the narrative and invites viewers to contemplate the nature of perception and reality. Whether in literature, cinema or speech, aporia serves as a catalyst for contemplation, encouraging individuals to question assumptions and explore intricate layers…

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Breaking the flow with Anacoluthon

Roopa Banerjee “Had ye been there — for what could that have done?” wrote poet John Milton in Lycidas. The sentence is interrupted midway and goes on to express an entirely different thought. This is anacoluthon — a literary device that intentionally disrupts the structure and syntax of a sentence, resulting in a unique and impactful effect. This interruption midway causes an unexpected discontinuity in the expression of ideas within a sentence, prompting the reader to think more intensely. Anacoluthon originates from the Greek words aná (meaning ‘not’) and kolouthós (‘following’). It refers to deviation from the expected grammatical structure within a sentence, where one part doesn’t logically follow another. This is a powerful literary device that challenges readers’ expectations and injects energy and intrigue into a narrative. Authors use it to evoke emotions, emphasise ideas, and convey the chaotic nature of characters or events. Anacoluthon disrupts the flow of language, demanding attention and offers a fresh perspective to the narrative. One of the earliest examples of anaculothon is in Ulysses by James Joyce where it creates a sense of disorientation and stream-of-consciousness. In the chapter ‘Oxen of the Sun’, Joyce uses anacoluthon to show the disjointed thoughts of various characters. The abrupt shifts in language mirror the cacophony of voices, capturing the chaos of the scene. In Beloved by Toni Morrison, it is used to convey the haunting and traumatic experiences of the characters. Through fragmented narrative structures, Morrison recounts the fragmented memories and psychological scars of the characters. Anacoluthon is also often used in pop culture. In the Hollywood movie Pulp Fiction directed by Quentin Tarantino, anacoluthon is used in several dialogues and monologues, deliberately disrupting the flow of conversation. These disruptions add depth to the characters’ interactions, intensify the tension, and contribute to the film’s distinctive style. Literature abounds with many examples of this unusual literary device. For example in Slaughterhouse-Five by Kurt Vonnegut, these lines illustrate anacoluthon beautifully. “The bells of the city were ringing. I wasn’t asleep. I looked at my watch. It was way after breakfast time. The bells quit ringing. I never heard such lovely bells in all my life.” Herein, Vonnegut uses anacoluthon to portray the broken thoughts and confused perception of time experienced by the protagonist. The shift in tense and subject creates a sense of confusion and disconnection, echoing the hero’s experiences of war and trauma. In Catch-22 by Joseph Heller, the lines “You’re inches away from death every time you go on a mission. How much older can you be at your age?” are anacoluthic in the second sentence. The sentence starts with a question about age and ends with a comment on the dangers of missions, creating a disruptive effect that highlights the absurdity and futility of war. Anacoluthon is not limited to literary works; it manifests in everyday conversation. Someone could say, “I was thinking of going to the gym today, but then, you know, the weather is so nice, maybe I’ll go for a hike instead.”…

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The Power of the Third WITH TRITAGONISTS

Roopa Banerjee A tritagonist is the third most important character in a story. She may act as the instigator or cause of suffering of the protagonist. Her presence in a tale ensures sympathy for the main character. In fiction writing, authors often use a variety of literary devices to create compelling and multi-dimensional characters. One such is the tritagonist, a crucial character in the narrative structure. Tritagonist originates from the Greek word trítagonistés, meaning the third actor or character on stage. In ancient Greek drama, the tritagonist played a supporting role to the protagonist and deuteragonist. Over time, the term has evolved to encompass a broader meaning in literature and storytelling. The tritagonist is important to a narrative structure, adding depth, complexity, and conflict to the story. While the protagonist drives the plot and deuteragonist provides a secondary perspective, the tritagonist contributes a distinct and complementary element to the narrative. For instance, in A Suitable Boy by Vikram Seth, the tritagonist Maan Kapoor’s journey of self-discovery and political awakening contributes to the intricate plot of the story, shedding light on themes of societal expectations and love across social divides. The earliest examples of tritagonists in literature are in Greek tragedies written by Sophocles and Euripides. They wrote about characters who often served as advisors, confidants, or foils to the protagonist, providing guidance or presenting contrasting perspectives. A notable example is Antigone’s sister, Ismene, in Sophocles’ play Antigone. Ismene serves as a supporting character engaging in important discussions with the protagonist. In more recent examples, the character of Jordan Baker, a professional golfer and Gatsby’s love interest, assumes the role of tritagonist in The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald. Also in the Harry Potter series by J.K. Rowling, while Harry is the undisputed protagonist of this magical saga, Hermione Granger is the tritagonist. Hermione’s intelligence, courage, and unwavering loyalty make her essential in the trio of main characters. She provides critical support to Harry, both intellectually and emotionally, and her character arc evolves throughout the series, showcasing growth and resilience. A pop culture example is in the cult Star Wars movies where Luke Skywalker is the protagonist, Han Solo the deuteragonist, and Princess Leia Organa, a leader of the Rebel Alliance, the tritagonist. Her courage, strategic thinking, and determination make her indispensable in the fight against the Galactic Empire. In Christopher Nolan’s The Dark Knight Trilogy, Batman is the hero, with his moral struggles and quest for justice. Commissioner James Gordon, portrayed by Gary Oldman, serves as the tritagonist. Gordon’s unwavering dedication to upholding the law, his complicated relationship with Batman and his pivotal role in Gotham City’s fight against crime makes him integral to the narrative. Understanding and using the tritagonist effectively enables authors to create compelling and well-rounded characters that enrich their fictional worlds. Exercise Can you identify the tritagonists in these famous books/ films? 1. The Lord of the Rings 2. Pride and Prejudice 3. The Hunger Games 4. The Matrix 5. To Kill a Mockingbird Authors:…

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Putting a positive spin with ANTANAGOGE

Roopa Banerjee “When life gives you lemons, make lemonade.” When someone wants to put a positive spin on a negative outcome, we oft hear this line. It suggests a negative (lemon) and follows up with a positive (lemonade). This is a clever way of using the literary device antanagoge defined as balancing a negative with a positive. Antanagoge is usually used in persuasive speech and fiction writing. Pointing out the positive helps balance the negative. For instance, the famous song in the cult movie Mary Poppins: ‘A spoonful of sugar makes the medicine go down.’ Using this literary device conveys that there is a silver lining to every cloud. Derived from the Greek antanagoge, which means to balance, it is a combination of two words: ‘anti’ i.e, against, and ‘anagoge,’ i.e, leading up. In everyday conversations, an example of antanagoge is: “The car broke down on our road trip, but at least we were able to enjoy the scenery while we waited for the tow truck.” Here, the negative situation is the car breaking down, but the positive is the opportunity to appreciate the landscape. In the Hollywood movie The Pursuit of Happyness, the protagonist played by Will Smith says, “You gotta dream, you gotta protect it. People can’t do something themselves, they wanna tell you that you can’t do it. If you want something, go get it. Period.” The negative here is people discouraging you from achieving your dreams, but the positive is that this can provide you the motivation to pursue them. In literature, the use of antanagoge is common. A good example is in the novel To Kill a Mockingbird by Harper Lee, Atticus Finch teaches his children that it’s not enough to hate someone; you also have to see things from their perspective. “You never really understand a person until you consider things from his point of view — until you climb into his skin and walk around in it.” Here, the negative situation is hating someone, but the positive is that one can acquire understanding and empathy. Another interesting example is in the play Macbeth by William Shakespeare where Macbeth says, “I have no spur to prick the sides of my intent, but only vaulting ambition, which o’erleaps itself and falls on the other.” Here, the negative is that Macbeth has no motivation to pursue his goals, but the positive is his ambition to succeed. Antanagoge is also used frequently in movies and TV shows. In the movie Rocky, Rocky Balboa says, “It ain’t about how hard you hit. It’s about how hard you can get hit and keep moving forward.” Here, the negative is getting hit, but the positive is developing capability to keep moving forward. Antanagoge is a powerful literary device for writers to create a sense of balance and perspective in the face of adversity. When used effectively, it also generates hope and optimism. Exercise Here are five books that use antanagoge. Name the authors of these books: 1. The Great Gatsby…

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Jumping into the fray with In Media Res

Roopa Banerjee Although in the iconic movie Sound of Music, Hollywood star Julie Andrews crooned this advice, ‘Let’s start at the very beginning, a very good place to start…,’ many tend to enjoy films or read books whose plots don’t start at the beginning. They start bang in the middle with flashbacks to establish context. This isn’t an error but a carefully thought through literary device known as in media res in which a story begins in the middle of action. In media res is Latin for “into the middle of things”. The phrase in media res was first used by ancient Roman poet Horace in his treatise on poetry, Ars Poetica, where he advised writers to start their stories in media res, or in the middle of the action, as a way to quickly engage readers and create literary tension. Since then, this literary device is used in literature, film, and television. One of the most famous examples of in media res in literature is Homer’s Iliad. This epic poem begins in the middle of the Trojan War, with the conflict between Achilles and Agamemnon already well underway. Another prominent example is James Joyce’s Ulysses. The novel begins with Stephen Dedalus walking on a beach, lost in thought. It is only later that the reader learns the full context of Stephen’s musings. By starting the novel with Stephen’s monologue, Joyce creates a sense of mystery and intrigue that draws readers into the narrative. In media res is also commonly used in film and television. For instance the film Saving Private Ryan begins with the violent and chaotic depiction of the Normandy landings during World War II, plunging the viewer straight into the thick of action. By starting the film in the middle of a battle, director Steven Spielberg creates a sense of danger and urgency. Another example in pop culture is in the pilot episode of the TV show Lost. The episode begins with the survivors of a plane crash stranded on a mysterious island, dealing with the aftermath of the accident. The viewer is immediately thrown into the story, with no explanation of how the characters got there or their backstory. This creates a sense of mystery and intrigue that draws viewers into the show. There are many benefits of using in media res in storytelling. By starting a story in the middle of action, writers and filmmakers can engage audiences and create a sense of urgency. This is especially effective in lengthy literary works, such as novels or television series, where a slow build-up may not be feasible and there are fears of losing reader attention. With in media res, readers become eager to know preceding as well as succeeding events. Also, by using this literary device, the author is spared from providing extraneous details of the past compelling readers to question every aspect of the story which makes their involvement deeper. However, there are also some drawbacks. By starting a story in the middle of action,…

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Painting the living image with kenning

Roopa Banerjee When you are told that your friend is a tree hugger, you know it means she is an environmentalist. A pencil pusher, similarly, is someone who follows a clerical job. Tree hugger and pencil pusher are examples of a literary device known as kenning. This figure of speech involves using a compound word or phrase to describe an object or person in a metaphorical way. For instance, terming a minor car accident a ‘fender-bender,’ is a typical example of kenning. Most kenning examples have an origin in medieval English. However, modern kennings are also abundant in our daily conversations. For instance, couch potato and book worm. Etymologically, kenning is derived from the Old Norse verb kenni (to know, recognise). Most kennings consist of two elements, both of which are nouns. For example, in couch potato, one of the nouns potato is the base word and couch the determinant. The earliest examples of kenning are found in the Anglo Saxon epic Beowulf. For instance ‘whale-road’ is used to describe the sea. This compound word effectively conjures a dramatic image of the ocean as a vast, undulating expanse that is home to many creatures, including whales. It shows how the Anglo-Saxons viewed the ocean as a treacherous and dangerous place, where a traveller is at the mercy of the waves and whales. Another early example is in The Seafarer by Anonymous. In this epic poem, the narrator describes the sea as ‘the swan-road’, a kenning that invokes the image of a graceful swan gliding across the water. This description not only captures the beauty of the sea, but also suggests that it is a pathway to a new and mysterious world. In modern life, we use kennings on a daily basis. Show stopper, mind reader and motor mouth are some examples. There are many modern films which have used kennings successfully. A case in point is The Dark Knight (2008) in which the villainous Joker is described as ‘agent of chaos’. This is a clever kenning that conveys that the Joker is not just a criminal, but a force of nature that brings chaos and upheaval wherever he goes. Another interesting example is in the Star Wars franchise where the Jedi Knights are often referred to as ‘lightsaber-wielding warriors’. This is a kenning that defines the spirit of the Jedi’s capabilities and their weapons, while also creating a sense of anticipation and drama. Also, the term ‘Man of Steel’ is a kenning used to describe Superman, the superhero from the DC Comics universe. P.G. Wodehouse, the renowned British author, often employed kennings in his writing to add a touch of humour to his characters and settings. For example in his novel Joy in the Morning the butler Jeeves is described as a ‘human pop-up book’. This kenning effectively portrays Jeeves as a multi-dimensional character who appears at the right time to solve problems, much like the surprise and depth one might find in a pop-up book. Kenning is a powerful…

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For the moon with OPTATIO

Roopa Banerjee “I wish I had more time to spend with my family.” When we say this, we are expressing a wish to be fulfilled. We know that this wish conveys our sense of longing and regret and hope for a better situation, even if it is unlikely to be realised. But what most of us don’t know is that we are using the literary device optatio to voice these wishes. Optatio is a figure of speech expressing a wish or hope, often with the objective of affecting the listener or changing reality. It is commonly used in literature, poetry, and everyday speech, and is an effective way of adding depth and meaning to the written or spoken word. The word optatio originates from the Latin optare which means to wish or choose. Optatio has been used for centuries in classical rhetoric, and passed down generations as a technique for writers and speakers to influence their audiences. An early example is in William Shakespeare’s Sonnet 29. In this legendary poetic work, Shakespeare expresses the narrator’s wish for happiness and deliverance from troubles: “When in disgrace with fortune and men’s eyes, I all alone beweep my outcast state, And trouble deaf heaven with my bootless cries, And look upon myself and curse my fate.” Shakespeare uses optatio to convey the narrator’s longing for a better life, and thus generates readers’ empathy for his plight. In another example from more recent literature, novelist Toni Morrison in her book Beloved uses optatio to express Sethe’s desire for a better future for her daughter. She wishes that “Beloved would smile and take me into her arms.” “Oh! To be a dragon, a symbol of the power of Heaven — of silkworm size or immense; at times invisible. Felicity! Pour long life to his Miss! And survivorship” shows classic use of optatio by Virginia Woolf in the novel To the Lighthouse. Woolf highlights the aspiration to be something greater and more powerful. Similarly, Mrs. Darling putting her hand to her heart and crying, “Oh, why can’t you remain like this for ever!” in Jim Barrie’s Peter Pan is another example of delightful use of optatio. Optatio has been used often in popular culture too. The song ‘A Whole New World’ from Disney’s Aladdin expresses the protagonist’s wish for a life beyond ordinary existence. Through optatio, the song conveys a dream and invites the audience to hope for it, too. Similarly in the song ‘I Wish’, Stevie Wonder repeatedly uses the phrase “I wish,” to express his longing for a better life. So now when you articulate a wish aloud, pause a moment to appreciate a literary device used for thousands of years! Exercise Here are the titles of literary works written by women authors which use optatio generously. Guess their authors. Literary works 1. Little Women 2. The Bell Jar 3. The Handmaid’s Tale 4. The Colour Purple 5. Jane Eyre Authors: 1. Louisa May Alcott 2. Sylvia Plath 3. Margaret Atwood 4. Alice Walker…

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Keep it real with VERISIMILITUDE

Roopa Banerjee When we watch a realistic film, we laud it as a ‘slice of life’ movie while recommending it to friends. The same is true for books that faithfully portray life as it is. Writers use verisimilitude to create the real-life effect. Verisimilitude is defined as being real or near to truth. It is used in fiction writing to create authenticity and credibility through various strategems, such as realistic dialogue, descriptive language, and plausible events. The word originates from the Latin versus, meaning like or toward, and similis, meaning similar. One of the key elements of verisimilitude is the use of realistic dialogue. For a story to be believable, the characters must speak in a manner that is consistent with their personalities, backgrounds, and setting of the story. It should also be in sync with their education, social status, and regional or cultural dialects. Another distinctive feature of verisimilitude is the use of descriptive language. This involves using specific and detailed language to paint a vivid picture of the story’s setting, characters, and events, to create a sense of immersion and real-life feeling for readers. Verisimilitude also involves creating a story that is plausible and believable. For example, if a character is able to fly, there should be a logical explanation for this supernatural ability, rather than simply presenting it as magical power. There are abundant examples of verisimilitude in literature. In To Kill a Mockingbird, author Harper Lee uses realistic dialogue and detailed descriptions of the characters and story setting to make it authentic. For instance the protagonist Atticus Finch speaks in a way that is consistent with his background as a lawyer, and the detailed descriptions of the small town of Maycomb, Alabama, creates a vivid setting. Similarly, in the short story A Rose for Emily by William Faulkner, the author uses plausible sequence of events to create a sense of reality. The story is told by an unnamed narrator who speaks in a way that is congruent with the era and setting of the story. Movies too have used verisimilitude over the years to provide as near real-life experiences to viewers. For instance The Shawshank Redemption uses realistic dialogue to create authenticity. The protagonist Andy Dufresne speaks the language of a finance executive, and the descriptions of the prison and surroundings create a convincing and immersive backdrop. The movie Gran Torino also uses true-to-life dialogue and events to make the story credible. The main character Walt Kowalski is believable as a Korean War veteran, and the action, while somewhat extreme, is presented credibly. Verisimilitude is an invaluable device to create cinema realism. Although clubbed as art films in India in the early 70s, realistic films came into their own with filmmakers such as Gulzar and Hrishikesh Mukherjee pioneering the use of verisimilitude in Hindi films. However it’s important to note that verisimilitude is not about portraying absolute reality, but the reality of the world as created in a book or film. When we say, “That wasn’t…

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Reveal true colours with ANAGNORISIS

It’s usually the turning point in a story when the protagonist moves from ignorance to awareness, writes Roopa Banerjee Anagnorisis is the moment in a literary work or film when the protagonist acknowledges another character’s true worth and/or truth about her own circumstance. It’s the turning point of a story when a character moves from ignorance to awareness. The etymology is from the Greek ana i.e, back, gnorizein, to make known or gain knowledge. Thus, anagnorisis in Greek means recognition. This literary device is acknowledged by Aristotle in his treatise Poetics as essential to the plot of a tragedy. In this earliest surviving work of dramatic and literary theory, he explains why anagnorisis is a key component of classical Greek tragedy. According to him the moment of truth or revelation gives the protagonist a life-changing insight into his own character as well as the situation. This epiphany propels the story to its conclusion. He believed that anagnorisis in a tragedy made the tale superior and appealing to readers. One of the early examples of anagnorisis is in Sophocles’ Greek drama Oedipus Rex when Oedipus realises the truth about his birth, and discovers that his wife Jocasta is his mother, the man he killed his father, and he the sinner who made Thebes miserable. This is followed by his descent into despair and misery. Another example is from the ancient Greek epic poem Odyssey, written by Homer. The king of Phaeacia asks his singer to entertain a shipwrecked stranger with songs of the Trojan War, and the stranger begins to sob as he is reminded of all the pain and grief he suffered, and reveals himself as none other than Odysseus. William Shakespeare has also used anagnorisis extensively in all his plays. In The Winter’s Tale, he uses it skilfully — when the shepherdess Perdita discovers she is the royal princess of Sicilia. This awareness completely transforms her life. A recent example of anagnorisis in pop culture is in Star Wars: Episode V — The Empire Strikes Back when Luke Skywalker realises the true identity of Darth Vader. That proves to be the turning point of the narrative. Three prequels were written to detail the backstory of Darth Vader after the anagnorisis revelation. The moment of anagnorisis in a plot not only enables the protagonist to understand his own reality, but also changes the flow of the narrative. It is a very valuable device for writers as it enables them to focus the attention of readers. Over time, anagnorisis has moved from tragedy to any plot that requires a revelation or twist. Bollywood films of the 1970s with the classic lost and found plot used anagnorisis with great effect. In these movies, lost family members were united at the end, which gave a positive boost to the audience as they left the theatre with a feel-good glow. This resolution of lingering issues brings the story to a satisfactory conclusion and allows readers/ viewers to experience catharsis. Anagnorisis is usually used during…

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Opposites attract with Antiphrasis

Literature abounds with examples of antiphrasis that enables writers to convey irony, writes Roopa Banerjee With the winter bringing with it cold, cough, flu and viral infections of all types, parents are anxious about children catching them. A good way to prepare children to repulse virus attacks is to build and strengthen their bodily immunity. The immune system is a repository of chemicals, antibodies, and white blood cells which combat viruses and diseases entering the body. Thus, strengthening your child’s immune system equips her with ammunition to fight viruses. While a healthy, nutritious diet and regular physical exercise are essential for building bodily immunity, most people are unaware that several yoga exercises such as rhythmic breathing, pranayama, and kriyas can strengthen the immune system. These yoga exercises improve heart function, digestion, boost lung capacity, blood circulation, and build body strength, and flexibility. Here are some lesser known yoga practices that are especially useful in building children’s immune systems. Jalaneti Kriya. Lukewarm salt water is poured into the nostrils. A Jal Neti pot with a spout is used to pour water into one nostril. The water runs slowly from the left nostril to the right and is flushed out. This alleviates colds, allergic rhinitis, sinusitis, throat infection, and respiratory problems such as wheezing, asthma, etc. It also improves hearing and vision. Kapalabhati or abdominal breathing is a type of pranayama characterised by subdued inhalations and short, powerful exhalations. It cleanses the respiratory system and improves blood circulation, reducing stress and fatigue. It also improves body posture. Square breathing aka box breathing is defined by equal time intervals for inhaling, holding, and exhaling one’s breath. This regulates breathing. It stabilises lymphocyte levels, thus building immunity. Here’s how to practise square breathing: Exhale to a count of four. Hold your lungs for four counts. Inhale for four counts. Hold breath for four counts. Exhale for four counts. Meditation. Silent meditation in sitting posture with closed eyes slows the body, boosts the parasympathetic nervous system, and reduces stress levels, thereby enhancing immunity in children. NB. Yoga needs to be done the right way. The assistance of a yoga practitioner to guide you through these and other exercises is strongly recommended. (Smriti Sivakumar is a yoga practitioner at 6AM Yoga, Bengaluru)

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Turning point with peripheria

A sudden reversal of fortune in a fictional story is known as peripeteia, writes Roopa Banerjee One has lost count of the number of times when in a film or book an unexpected event changed and/or reversed the course of a story midway. This sudden reversal of fortune in a story is known as peripeteia. Liberally used by writers to engage readers who thought they could predict the chain of events halfway through a story, peripeteia rekindles readers’ interest. William Shakespeare, George Eliot and Sophocles were among prominent users of this literary device. Readers of the renaissance age described peripeteia as ‘fickle fate’ as more often than not, it rained misery upon a protagonist or antagonist, depending on the tale. Peripeteia originates from the Greek verb peripiptein, i.e, “to fall around” or “to change suddenly” — peri denoting around and peteia, change. It is a turning point of a narrative, and is mostly the moment in the tale when a lead character’s world changes for the worse. In his treatise of Greek dramatic theory Poetics, Aristotle wrote that peripeteia is essential to the plot of a tragedy and that the shift of a protagonist’s fortune from good to bad creates an engrossing tale. Thus, this literary device is often used in works of tragedy. A twist in the tale precipitates the protagonist’s fall from great height to disaster. It must be noted that minor turning points in a story are not peripetia. For example, when a villain drops a gun and the hero grabs it, and tables are turned, it’s not peripeteia. An early example of peripeteia is in Oedipus Rex in which there’s a momentous reversal of fortunes when a shepherd tells Oedipus that he is a sinner because he killed his father and married his own mother. This transfoms him into a despondent and melancholic character. Another example of this literary device is in the novel The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald in which the author describes Nick Carraway’s utter indifference on events happening beyond his realm of knowledge. Another example in the same book is when Tom Buchanan learns about his wife Turning point with peripeteia Myrtle Wilson’s affair with Jay Gatsby. Following this revelation, he kills his wife and attempts suicide before surviving as a hopeless alcoholic. Shakespeare used peripeteia extensively to create drama and uncertainty in his plays. In A Midsummer Night’s Dream, the protagonist Hermia is punished by her father for eloping with her lover Lysander when she was supposed to marry Demetrius. However, at the end of the play, the audience learns it was Helena who was courting Lysander all along. Peripeteia is also used frequently in pop culture. Luke Skywalker’s moment of revelation about Darth Vader in Star Wars is a classic example of new-age use of peripeteia. Ditto in The Hunger Games where Katniss Everdeen becomes the face of the rebellion against President Snow’s tyrannical dictatorship. Why is peripeteia a popular literary device for writers? Perhaps it’s because it changes…

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Exchange words with hypallage

A hypallage is a figure of speech in which the syntactic relationship between two words is interchanged, resulting in unspoken personification of an inanimate or abstract noun, writes Roopa Banerjee Every time you are wished ‘Good Morning,’ you are hearing a hypallage. A morning has no feelings, good or bad, but it is you who says it’s good. The epithet is transferred from you to the morning. Similarly, when a friend says she had a ‘restless night’, the night wasn’t restless, but the person who was awake through it. A hypallage is a figure of speech in which the syntactic relationship between two words is interchanged. It usually results in the unspoken personification of an inanimate or abstract noun. Hypallage is also known as a transferred epithet. The word hypallage is derived from ancient Greek — hypo means “under” and allássein “to interchange”. The descriptive hypallage was coined in 1586. Early examples are seen in ancient Greek poetry with phrases such as “the winged sound of whirling,” i.e, “the sound of whirling wings” (Aristophanes, Birds 1198), and Horace’s “angry crowns of kings” (Odes). We use hypallage more often than we realise in everyday conversation. When you say, “That careless remark left her crying through the night,” you are actually saying that the person who made the remark was careless, but instead you have transferred that failing to the ‘remark’ from the person. Hypallage frequently produces a metaphor. If we say, “He danced the happy road home,” the suggestion is that the person is happy and thus everything else, even the lifeless road, is infected by his happiness. George Puttenham (1529–1590), an English writer and literary critic, described hypallage as a ‘changeling’ as the exchange of words changes the “true construction and application” of a statement, so that “the sense is quite perverted and made very absurd.” Hypallages are used frequently in books, plays, and films. “While he’s waiting, Richard pops a nervous handful of salted nuts into his mouth” is an interesting hypallage used in This Book Will Save Your Life by A.M. Homes. The salted nuts, obviously, are not nervous and it is Richard who is struggling with his nerves! In the poem The Thought Fox by Ted Hughes, in the phrase “Beside the clock’s loneliness,” it is the poet who is lonely, not the clock. Similarly, the phrase “Corruption reaps the young …” in the poem Feud by Theodore Roethke uses hypallage by interchanging the subject and object — corruption does not reap the young, but the young reap corruption. Alfred E Housman uses hypallage in his poem On the Idle Hill of Summer when he writes “On the idle hill of summer/Sleepy with the flow of streams/Far I hear…” where the word ‘idle’ defines the narrator, and not the hill. P.G. Wodehouse fans will recognise many instances of this literary device in his books. “I lighted a thoughtful cigarette and, dismissing Archimedes for the nonce, allowed my mind to dwell once more on the ghastly jam into…

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Don’t misuse Checkov’s Gun

Anton Chekhov, a Russian playwright and short story-writer, believed that writers should not introduce details that don’t contribute to the story How many times have you read a book or watched a movie that gives details which have no significance in the story to follow? This has long been a pet peeve of the literary world and in particular of Anton Chekhov (1860-1904), a Russian playwright and short story-writer. Chekhov believed that writers should not introduce details that don’t contribute to the plot. “One must never place a loaded rifle on the stage if it isn’t going to go off. It’s wrong to make promises you don’t mean to keep,” he said. To emphasise this principle, Chekhov used the analogy of the loaded rifle in his play The Seagull where a gun mentioned at the beginning of the story was fired at the end. The rifle used to kill a seagull in the early chapters, was later used by the protagonist to kill himself. The gun is a metaphor for any element of the story. For instance a person, object, event or place. The right way to use the gun is to draw the attention of readers to the ‘gun’ at the very beginning of the plot and then use it dramatically in the end. The gun should ‘go off ’, meaning it should have a significant impact on the story. Chekhov’s Gun is the opposite of a red herring where an element is introduced in the story to throw the audience off the actual trail. The literary world has many examples of Chekhov’s Gun. For instance the character of Magwitch in Charles Dickens’ Great Expectations. He is introduced early in the story with a lot of mystery surrounding him. The reader is intrigued, but Magwitch is not mentioned again for a major part of the novel. But later on he is revealed as the financial benefactor of the protagonist Pip. In more recent times, in The Hunger Games by Suzzane Collins, the main character Katniss’ understanding of poisonous plants is the gun. It seems insignificant in the beginning but makes a dramatic comeback as Katniss uses poisonous berries to trick the Capitol into releasing her and Peeta. Similarly, Harry Potter books feature several instances of Chekhov’s Gun. For example, the author JK Rowling mentions bezoar (a mass often found trapped in the gastroinestinal system) in the first book during Potter’s first Potions class. The bezoar is reintroduced in Book 6 where it is used to save Ron after he drinks poisonous mead. Similarly, the golden snitch mentioned in the first book during a game of Quidditch returns in the final novel as the hiding place of the resurrection stone. An example of Chekhov’s Gun in a popular film is found in The Shawshank Redemption where a poster, rock, hammer and the Bible get perfunctory mention in the beginning and later contribute to the movie’s amazing climax. Similarly, in M Night Shyamalan’s film Signs, the ‘gun’ is the glasses of…

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Soften the stance with Euphemisms

Euphemism is the substitution of an agreeable and inoffensive phrase for one that may offend or suggest something unpleasant, Roopa Banerjee When a colleague or friend says, “I am under the weather,” we know that she is feeling physically unwell. But instead of stating the bald truth, she prefers to use a euphemism. Euphemism is the substitution of an agreeable and inoffensive phrase for one that may offend or suggest something unpleasant. It’s derived from the Greek word euphemismos or euphemia, which means ‘to sound good’ or ‘words of good omen’. Euphemisms are of various type. For instance abstractions that refer to unpleasant facts of life such as death. Saying that a person passed away is a commonly used euphemism for death. Similarly, modifications are used to alter an offensive noun to an adjective to reduce hurt, such as “That was a silly thing to do” instead of “She’s silly.” Euphemisms have become an accepted part of verbal communication because stating the plain truth may be considered rude and brash in polite society. Therefore using euphemisms allows you to say what you want indirectly to soften the blow. Euphemisms sometimes evolve as meanings of words and their connotations change with changing times, thus rendering them counterproductive and unintentionally offensive. For example, welfare was originally used with a constructive implication, but years of typecasting have harmed that nuance. As a result, people are now using assistance to convey altruistic services. Euphemisms are also deployed extensively for humour or to cover profanity on television and cinema. For example, in the film Monty Python and the Holy Grail, a seriously wounded knight refers to his amputated arm as a “flesh wound.” Disney’s hit movie The Emperor’s New Groove offers a fine example of euphemism. The protagonist Kuzco fires his advisor. However, when the advisor shows some distress, he hurriedly says the same thing with euphemisms: “Um, how else can I say it? You’re being let go. Your department’s being downsized. You’re part of an outplacement program. We’re going in a different direction. We’re not picking up your option. Take your pick. I got more.” Of course, literature abounds with euphemism as it injects poetic imagery in writing. William Shakespeare used this literary device in all his plays, without exception. These lines from Macbeth are probably the most stellar example: “But be the serpent under ‘t. He that’s coming Must be provided for; and you shall put This night’s great business into my dispatch…” The phrase ‘must be provided for’ alludes to the planned murder of the king. Similarly, Tom Hardy’s poem Afterwards denotes death with the subtle phrase ‘stilled at last.’ “If, when hearing that I have been stilled at last, they stand at the door, Watching the full-starred heavens that winter sees…” George Orwell in his dystopian novel 1984 also used euphemisms generously. “The Ministry of Truth, which concerned itself with news, entertainment, education, and the fine arts. The Ministry of Peace, which concerned itself with war. The Ministry of Love, which…

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Drop a hint with foreshadowing

Foreshadowing is usually used at the beginning of a story and helps readers build up expectations about forthcoming outcomes, writes Roopa Banerjee Foreshadowing is a literary device used by writers to convey a hint of what is to come later in a narrative. It is usually used at the beginning of a story, and arouses reader expectations about forthcoming outcomes. Foreshadowing is done in several ways — through dialogues of characters or plot settings. Sometimes, the chapter title gives indication and intimation of what’s to follow. If done rightly, foreshadowing can add drama to a story and considerably increase readers’ expectation and enhance the reading experience. But foreshadowing can be mistaken for other literary devices such as red herring and Chekhov’s gun. A red herring is a hint that is devised to confuse the audience while foreshadowing is a true hint of what is to come in the future. Likewise, Chekhov’s Gun refers to an unspoken agreement that a writer won’t make “false promises” to a reader by introducing elements that are unexplained. And if she does draw readers attention to something, she will eventually reveal why it’s worth noticing. On the other hand foreshadowing is about insinuations that aren’t false promises. The opposite of foreshadowing is side shadowing, the practice of including scenes with no relevance to the plot. Writers often use motifs and symbols to create foreshadowing. Dialogues such as “I have a strong feeling this will lead to no good”, is usually a forecast of something ominous. Symbols such as blood and weapons forecast dreadful happenings. Storm clouds, broken mirrors, and settings of graveyards are some other examples of foreshadowing. Book titles are popularly used for foreshadowing. Two excellent examples: Murder on the Orient Express by Agatha Christie and As I Lay Dying by William Faulkner. Also in Romeo and Juliet, William Shakespeare uses foreshadowing when Romeo says “Come, death, and welcome. Juliet wills it so.” Juliet also has a vision of Romeo: “As one dead in the bottom of a tomb.” This intense foreshadowing of the lovers’ deaths emphasises that they are confined by their destinies. In Macbeth too Shakespeare uses this device skilfully. For example, when the witches first meet Macbeth, they hint that he will be king someday, but they don’t indicate that he will achieve his ambition by murdering Duncan. George Orwell’s Animal Farm also makes heavy use of foreshadowing. Each chapter foretells an event that is to happen in the next. For example, Napoleon’s decision to execute other animals is foreshadowed in Chapter 1, when Old Major says: “You young porkers who are sitting in front of me, every one of you will scream your lives out at the block within a year.” Likewise in Great Expectations, Charles Dickens uses descriptions of the weather to forecast the sad turn Pip’s story will take: “So furious had been the gusts, that high buildings in town had had the lead stripped off their roofs; and in the country, trees had been torn up, and…

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The moving spirit of zeitgeist

-Roopa Banerjee Zeitgeist defines the spirit of an age or time period denoted by ideas, beliefs, literature, philosophy, etc of that period. The word coined in the 17th century comes from the German zeit i.e, time and geist which means spirit. Zeitgeist is a useful literary tool for writers as it conveys popular thinking of a given time period or iconic moment. It makes books and films written about a particular period in history real and authentic. A good example is the Neapolitan series My Brilliant Friend by Elena Ferrante. This series is set in Italy of the 1930s through the 70s with each book brilliantly depicting the zeitgeist of the time. The story revolves around the angst of female emancipation and political violence in Italy through the 1930-70 decades. Similarly, the zeitgeist of England in the Victorian age was faith in industrial growth, and in the United States of the 1980s, characterised by consumerism. The 1920s in America were termed the Jazz Age, Age of Intolerance, and Roaring Twenties. Books/films set in the 1920s depict this zeitgeist. For instance the novel The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerland captures the spirit of the roaring twenties. The movie Great Gatsby directed by Bazz Luhrmann in 2013 similarly gives prominence to the flash and opulence of the jazz age. Similarly, Woody Allen’s film Midnight in Paris is a nod to the razzmatazz of the 1920s with screen interactions with Ernest Hemingway and Gertrude Stein. Ditto The Boy in the Striped Pyjamas set in Germany of the 1940s captures the zeitgeist of World War II. In India Bollywood movies such as Lagaan and Zubeida effectively capture India of the 1930s while Hare Rama Hare Krishna depicts the spread of hippie culture in India in the 1970s. Whenever viewers/readers observe that a period drama/book transported them to another time, they are experiencing the magic of zeitgeist. Literature is replete with zeitgeist examples. Breakfast at Tiffanys by Truman Capote is set in the New York of 1940s. Mafia gangsters and martinis flowing in cocktail hours set the tone for this book. Another example is The Bell Jar by Sylvia Plath set in the New York of the 1950s. Zeitgeist plays an important role in helping readers/viewers learn and understand the mistakes and errors of the past. Although we cannot go back in time, zeitgeist books and films serve as virtual time machines. Understanding history owes a lot to zeitgeist. Exercise Name the authors of these zeitgeist books: 1. 1984 2. The Naked Ape 3. Zen & The Art of Motorcycle Maintenance 4. A Clockwork Orange Answers: 1. George Orwell 2. Desmond Morris 3. Robert Pirsig 4. Anthony Burgess

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Name it right with Aptronyms

This literary device owes its origins to American columnist and writer Franklin P. Adams, who coined it an anagram of patronym, i.e, apt Roopa Banerjee Aptronym is a personal name that aptly describes its owner. Aka aptonym or namephreak, the name describes the occupation or character of its owner, usually humorously. This literary device owes its origins to Franklin P. Adams (1881-1960), an American columnist and writer, who coined it as an anagram of patronym, i.e, apt. Some striking examples of aprtonyms are Alexander Graham Bell who invented the telephone, and Usain Bolt, Jamaican sprinter and three-time Olympic gold medalist. Then there are meteorologists who bear names such as Raines, Blizzard, Storm and Freeze. Latter day researchers have formulated an interesting hypothesis — nominative determinism — which suggests that people tend to be attracted to professions that fit their name. This hypothesis was first argued in 1994 in the New Scientist, following which numerous people wrote in with examples of nominative determinism. For instance, Daniel Snowman has authored a book on polar explorations. However aptronyms differ from nominative determinism because they don’t delve into the relationship of causality. Aptronyms have a long history in English literature. In the 17th century Christian allegory Pilgrim’s Progress, author John Bunyan used aptronyms for two of his characters Mr. Worldly Wiseman and Mr. Talkative. Charles Dickens, in particular, was a master of the literary aptronym. In A Christmas Carol, Ebenezer Scrooge is a miser and hard as flint; Oliver Twist presents the trio of fussy official Bumble, Grimwig and the burglar, Toby Crackit; in Hard Times the sombre Gradgrind and M’Choakumchild teach in Gradgrind’s school. A Tale of Two Cities has the Crunchers, a family of grave-robbers, and David Copperfield has the evil Murdstone, whose name suggests a blend of murder and tombstone. Similarly the bard William Shakespeare enjoyed using aptronyms. For instance the character Hotspur in King Henry IV is quick-tempered and impatient. His other memorable aptronyms include Shallow, Mistress Quickly, Bottom, Falstaff and Sir Toby Belch. In the 21st century, literary aptronyms made a big comeback in J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter books. For example Draco Malfoy’s name defines his character with Draco being Latin for “dragon” and Mal foi French for “bad faith.” Slytherin is a blend of the words “sly” and “slithering.” Lord Voldemort means “flight from death” in French and “vole” is also a type of rodent. Professor Quirrel evokes images of a quarrel and squirrel. The books in The Hunger Games series are also bursting with characters with aptronyms. For instance Katniss (cat-like), Peeta (the bread maker), and Plutarch Havensbee (safe haven). Meanwhile, there are inaptronyms where an individual’s name has an ironic connection with her chosen profession. A police officer named Rob Banks or a white supremacist named Don Black. Exercise: Here is a list of names — aptronyms. Can you match them with their occupations? 1. Scott Speed 2. Chris Moneymaker 3. John Laws 4. William Wordsworth 5. Jules Angst 6. Amy Freeze Occupations: a. Meteorologist b.…

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Mind the gap with ellipsis

In its oldest sense as a rhetorical device, ellipsis implies the skilful exclusion of words suggested by a previous clause in the sentence Roopa Banerjee Many of us know ellipsis merely as a punctuation mark with three periods to indicate that some written matter has been eliminated from a sentence. However, in its oldest sense as a rhetorical device, ellipsis implies the skilful exclusion of words suggested by a previous clause in the sentence. For example: “The American soldiers killed eight civilians, and the French eight” omits the word soldiers after French, and civilians after eight. Yet, readers have no trouble following the writer as both missing words are clearly implied by the previous clause. The word ellipsis comes from the Greek élleipsis, i.e, to leave out or fall short. In a larger context, ellipsis is used in literature to denote entire chunks of a story missing in the narrative. This literary device is used to reduce time, or sometimes as a rhetoric method to allow readers to fill in the missing segments of the story with their own imagination. A famous extension of ellipsis was used by American writer Ernest Hemingway (1899-1961) who initiated the Iceberg Theory, aka the theory of omission. As a young journalist, Hemingway had to focus his reporting on current news events, which allowed very little personal perspective or interpretation. When he became a writer, he continued this minimalistic style, focusing on external elements without overtly discussing underlying themes. Hemingway maintained that the deeper meaning of a story should not be obvious. In his posthumously published memoir A Moveable Feast, he explains: “I omitted the real end (of Out of Season) which was that the old man hanged himself. This was omitted on my new theory that you could omit anything… and the omitted part would strengthen the story.” In the writing style of the Iceberg Theory, the complexities of a narrative run beneath the surface of a story. Another striking example of literary ellipsis is in To the Lighthouse by American novelist Virginia Woolf (1882-1941). The novel is composed in two parts and many years pass between them during which World War I is fought and won. It is left to readers to deduce the events that take place during the two parts by changes clearly evident in the characters of the novel. Literature apart, ellipsis is commonly used in filmmaking. It is normal procedure to edit sections of the story where the action is not essential to the narrative. For example ellipsis was prominently used in 1970s Bollywood films where the hero’s childhood was segued into his grown-up scene just before the credit titles of the film rolled. Stories with flashback, in films as well as novels, have to use this literary device as the narrative treads the back-and-forth journey of the characters. No book or film can be written in real time and that makes the use of the ellipsis essential. Similarly, chronological jumps always need an ellipsis. Most Harry Potter films…

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Stay in character with Charactonym

Charactonym is a name that is descriptive of the character who bears it Roopa Banerjee Have you observed that some characters in books, TV shows and films bear names that depict and/or describe their personalities? For instance Ebenezer Scrooge, the mean miser, in Charles Dicken’s A Christmas Carol. The name Scrooge gives readers clear indication of him being a miser even before Dickens elaborates on this character trait. This literary device where a character’s name suggests a distinctive personal trait is known as charactonym. One of the most apt examples of this literary device is Mistress Nell Quickly, a fictional character featured in several plays by William Shakespeare. She is an innkeeper, who runs the Boar’s Head Tavern, at which Sir John Falstaff and his layabout accomplices meet. Another interesting charactonym is Sir Toby Belch in Shakespeare’s Twelfth Night. Sir Toby’s surname, Belch, indicates his love of food and drink and hearty living, as also his raucous temperament. The word charactonym is formed by combining character with onym, derived from the Greek onuma, meaning a name or word. Thus, charactonym is the name given to a character. Not just plays, fairy tales also abound in charactonyms. For instance, Snow White and Sleeping Beauty. In contemporary literature for children, the best example is J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter series where there are many charactonyms. The character Draco Malfoy conjures up an image of a dark personality as ‘draco’ suggests dragon and the prefix ‘mal’ — evil or bad. Similarly, Sirius Black and Remus Lupin are excellent examples of charactonyms. Sirius is the name of a dog constellation while Remus is one of the twin founders of Rome, said to be raised by a wolf. Lupin is very similar to the word lupine, an adjective which means of or relating to wolf. Also, the Latin name for wolf is canis lupus. Thus, the names of Sirius Black and Remus Lupin actually mean Black Dog and Wolf Wolf. Similarly, Severus Snape — the Latin word severus means strict and Snape evokes mental image of a snake. Richard Sheridan’s famous play The Rivals features a character named Miss Malaprop who uses incorrect words in place of words with similar sound, resulting in nonsensical, sometimes humorous utterances. Another famous character is Alfred Doolittle from George Bernard Shaw’s Pygmalion. He never had a job and actually did very little. Classic use of charactonym. A unique feature of charactonyms is that they are very specific to the language in which the story is written. Hence, they pose great challenge to translators. Not just literature, people in the real world also have names that match the work they do. Like Lance Bass who became a bass singer for the American pop band NSYNC and Usain Bolt who is a world-famous sprinter. Their examples would also qualify as atronyms, a literary form which deserves a separate story! Exercise Here are some charactonym origins of famous characters. Identify the books from which these charactonyms have been taken: 1. Xenophilius Lovegood. The…

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Wearing two hats with Zeugma

Zeugma skilfully uses a single verb to refer to two different objects in an ungrammatical but striking way, writes Roopa Banerjee In quick succession, Meena lost her job, her house, and her mind! Did this sentence make you do a double take and read again? That’s because it was a zeugma — an interesting literary form that uses the same word to indicate two or more different things in more than one way. Zeugma skilfully uses a single verb to refer to two different objects in an ungrammatical but striking way. It is also often used with an adjective to refer to two separate nouns, even though the adjective would typically be suitable for just one of the two. It has its origin in the Greek zeugma, which means yoking, joining or bonding, and is pronounced ‘zoog-muh’. Zeugma serves two purposes, depending on the intention and skill of the writer. It can either confuse or inspire readers to introspect deeply. The more inspired zeugmas usually do the latter. They add emotion, create drama, and produce shock value. An example: ‘If we don’t hang together, we shall hang separately!’ — Benjamin Franklin, writer & scientist (1706-1790) Zeugmas are also used to generate humour. ‘She exhausted her audience and her repertoire’ and ‘The Queen of England sometimes takes advice in that chamber, and sometimes tea’ are interesting examples. Literature abounds with examples of zeugma. Renowned British novelist Jane Austen used zeugma in her work with great style. For instance this famous line from Pride and Prejudice: ‘Yet time and her aunt moved slowly — and her patience and her ideas were nearly worn out before the tete-a-tete was over.’ Classic zeugma. Novelist Charles Dickens also took great joy in using this figure of speech. He worded sentences cleverly, adding hilarity and intensity to his prose, as seen in this line from Oliver Twist: ‘He was alternately cudgelling his brains and his donkey.’ However zeugmas can easily go wrong if the writer uses a misplaced modifier. For example, ‘She dug for gold and praise in the ground’ fails because one doesn’t dig for praise in the ground. ‘She dug for gold and praise’ is a better fit. Tragedy can also be expressed by zeugma. ‘The storm sank my boat and my dreams’ is an interesting way to capture pathos. Cinema has also used zeugmas, albeit less than literature. For example, this line mouthed by Uncle Fester in the Hollywood movie Addams Family Values: ‘I live in shame… and the suburbs’. Television has seen its fair share of zeugmas, too. A popular and familiar zeugma is in Star Trek: The Next Generation. ‘You are free to execute your laws, and your citizens, as you see fit.’ Exercise Identify the author and novel from where these zeugmas are excerpted: 1. ‘They tugged and tore at each other’s hair and clothes, punched and scratched each other’s nose, and covered themselves with dust and glory.’ 2. ‘She looked at the object with suspicion and a magnifying glass.’…

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Better left unsaid with Anapodoton

A popular rhetorical device, anapodoton is when the main clause of a phrase that is unsaid, is implied by a well-known subordinate clause, writes Roopa Banerjee When someone says, ‘When in Rome…’ and leaves the sentence midway, we know that the sentence would go on to have a main clause i.e, ‘Do as Romans do’. This literary technique where a main clause of a sentence is suggested by the introduction of a subordinate clause is known as anapodoton. A popular rhetorical device, anapodoton is when the main clause of a phrase/sentence that is unsaid is implied by a subordinate clause that is said. Anapodoton is when you stop saying something halfway through. This could be either because an entirely new thought has occurred to you, or because everyone can understand where the sentence is going, and so there’s no need to actually put it in words. A speaker could omit the main clause also because she interrupts herself to modify the idea, leaving the sentence grammatically unresolved but changing its content into a new sentence. For example, when you say ‘If you think this is the end …Of course not!’ this indicates that you stopped for a minute to correct your tone and meaning. Anapodoton originated from the Greek anapodosis which means “without a main clause.” It is generally used for popular idioms or oft used sentences where one can easily guess the missing words. Like ‘If the shoe fits, (wear it)’ or ‘If pigs had wings, (they would fly)’. This literary device is often used in classical Chinese and Japanese, where a long scholarly phrase is shortened to an adequate allusion. For example, the Chinese philosopher Zhuangzi’s phrase “A frog in a well cannot conceive of the ocean” meaning “People of limited experience have a narrow world view” is conveyed as “A frog in a well” in modern Chinese. However, anapodoton works best with first-person narration or dialogues. But, you could also make it work in essays, poetry, and even formal writing. Moreover, it succeeds only if the missing part of the sentence is known widely enough to be easily added. If not, you are just left with a fragment of a sentence which will have the grammar purists after you! Literature has many examples of this rhetorical figure of speech. American novelist F. Scott Fitzgerald used anapodoton in the closing lines of The Great Gatsby with an incomplete thought: “Gatsby believed in the green light, the orgastic future that year by year recedes before us. It eluded us then, but that’s no matter — tomorrow we will run faster, stretch out our arms farther… And one fine morning — So we beat on, boats against the current, borne back ceaselessly into the past.” Anapodoton is not always used with famous idioms. It can also be used by deliberately creating a sentence fragment by the absence of a clause: “If only you came with me!” We will end this with an exercise, as always. As they say, all good…

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Seeking meaning with ambiguity

Ambiguity gives freedom to readers to use their imagination to explore various meanings and interpretations – Roopa Banerjee Ambiguous words/statements allow for more than one meaning; create confusion, sometimes causing intentional and/or unintentional humour. For instance in the following sentence, “The boy helped a stray dog in blue pyjamas,” one may think the stray dog was wearing blue pyjamas. However writing the sentence without ambiguity would make things clearer, such as “Wearing blue pyjamas, the boy helped a stray dog.” Ambiguity is sub-categorised into two types: Lexical ambiguity (a word having more than one meaning) Syntactic ambiguity (a sentence having more than one interpretation). The use of homonyms i.e, words spelled and pronounced similar to another word but different in meaning, can also cause ambiguity. For instance: ‘A good life depends on the liver’ and ‘As the ball raced towards her, we saw her duck’, could mean different things. But ambiguity is not always unintentional in writing. It is deliberately used by writers to create interest, intensity and depth. Literature abounds with examples of this literary device. For example, poet John Keats uses ambiguity in the first line of his great poem Ode to a Grecian Urn: “Thou still unravish’d bride of quietness…” Here, ‘still’ is ambiguous — it could mean an unmoving object, or understood as something that is yet to change. The bard William Shakespeare has used ambiguity on a larger scale. For example, his play Hamlet has a lot of ambiguity in the moral leanings of its eponymous protagonist. When Hamlet kills his uncle Claudius, the audience is left conflicted because he killed to avenge his father’s murder and to protect his mother. However, he is also willing to kill to achieve his aims. This ambiguity is further evidenced when he is traumatised by Ophelia’s death but does not value the effect that his actions will have on others. Literary works which deploy ambiguity leave a lasting impression on readers’ minds as it lends deeper meaning and depth to the story. Ambiguity gives freedom to readers to use their imagination to explore various meanings and interpretations. William Empson, the literary scholar has rightly defined ambiguity as “any verbal nuance, however slight, which gives room for alternative reactions to the same piece of language”. It is a potent tool as ambiguous situations entice readers to decide what happens in a story. The interpretation reflects the reader’s own state of mind. If you are optimistic, you would decide that things ended well, or if you are hurt or pessimistic, you might assume that a betrayal was intentional rather than accidental. Authors often deliberately write ambiguous endings in their books to enable readers to blend their life experiences with the words they read. Strangely, this literary device loses its respectability when it ventures outside the realms of literature. Ambiguity is a powerful tool of political science, and it is the despair of people when politicians use it to obfuscate the meaning of their words. Exercise There are many books which…

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Joining and joining with polysyndeton

I want to write books and act on stage and sing songs and solve mysteries and learn new things and travel everywhere and live life – Roopa Banerjee If a friend narrates her life’s ambitions as above, your first reaction is likely to be a sigh and think that that it is a very long sentence! However, it’s clever use of polysyndeton, a literary device. Polysyndeton is the deliberate insertion of conjunctions in a sentence with the intention of slowing down its rhythm and is widely used in poetry and literature. When used well, it facilitates the flow of ideas in smooth, rhythmic style. If used without care, the result is a botched-up sentence with too many conjunctions. The most commonly used conjunctions are: and, because, or, but, if, and when. The word ‘polysyndeton’ is derived from the ancient Greek πολύ (poly), meaning “many,” and συνδετόν (syndeton), meaning “bound together with”. It separates each element and assigns equal importance to each of them as it links them together with repeated use of conjunctions. For instance, in After the Storm, American novelist Ernest Hemingway (1899-1961) wrote: “I asked, ‘Who killed him?’ and he replied, ‘I don’t know but he’s definitely dead.’ It was not light and there was water in the road and no lights and boats through the town and blown down trees”. This is a classic example of polysyndeton as it repeats conjunctions to give rhythm and flow to the sentence. In the poem I know why the caged bird sings American poet Maya Angelou (1928-2014) has used polysyndeton brilliantly: “When things were very bad, his soul just crawled behind his heart and curled up and went to sleep.” Among prominent novelists from the British Victorian era, Charles Dickens has probably used polysyndetons the most. In many of his novels, the prose is peppered generously with this literary device. From “There were fields and cows and dunghills and heaps and ditches” in Dombey and Son, to “….to mingle with the scents of gin and beer and coffee and tea and whatever else” in A Tale of Two Cities, polysyndetons mark their presence in gentlest form. When writers study this literary device, they frequently refer to examples in works of Charles Dickens as he used it most unobtrusively. Polysyndeton was popular among American authors, too. Prominent American writer and humourist Mark Twain (1835-1910) used it profusely in most of his works. In his novel Huckleberry Finn, an example of polysyndeton is in the following extract “I donned my old clothes and my sugarhogshead once more and I was free and satisfied.” Everyday conversations are also often filled with polysyndetons without our realising it. We often utter sentences like “At the party, we had sausages and chips and cake and cola.” In fact, spoken prose is more likely to use repeated conjunctions as one doesn’t have the comfort of visible commas in our speech. Young children are also most likely to use polysyndeton, particularly when they are excited while answering. It…

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Wrap a story in silver foil

Foil is a literary device which enables readers to appreciate the protagonist’s strengths and virtues through comparison and contrast with a supportive character, writes Roopa Banerjee PW readers can surely recall at least few movies/books featuring an exceptionally intelligent protagonist who is always accompanied by a person not too smart. For instance, in the popular Hindi television series of the 1980s, Karamchand, the eponymous detective’s assistant was the dim-witted Kitty. This invariably made Karamchand seem doubly smarter to the audience. This characters contrast is an age-old technique used in literature and is known as foil. Foil is a literary device which enables readers/viewers to appreciate the protagonist’s virtues and strengths through the comparison and contrast with a suportive character. Juxtaposing the foil and lead character draws the readers’ attention to the lead’s attributes. The term foil is taken from an old jewellery trick of setting a gem on a foil base to enhance its shine. However a foil is not an antagonist or villain. While an antagonist deliberately hinders the protagonist from achieving her goals, a foil shines the spotlight on the positive character traits of the lead character. A foil is often a friend of the protagonist, like Dr. Watson to Sherlock Holmes in Arthur Conan Doyle’s detective series. An example of a perfect literary foil who highlights the protagonist’s virtues through contrast is Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein. Victor Frankenstein isolates himself, driven by his obsession to create a living being. He creates a creature who yearns for companionship, thus exhibiting the human characteristics that Frankenstein lacks. This is, in effect, his own foil. Sometimes, a foil is added to a story to explain values and motivations which lead the main characters to make different choices. The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn by Mark Twain shows Huck is guided by his moral compass, and his foil, Tom Sawyer, by a sense of adventure. Another example of an interesting foil is Mercutio in William Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet, without whom Romeo’s love story might just seem very ordinary. Mercutio shows a more casual approach to love and the contrast helps to enhance the intensity of Romeo’s romance. However a foil is not always a human character. Some authors have used objects as foil. In Wuthering Heights, Emily Brontë contrasts the grey and gloomy estate of Wuthering Heights with Thrushcross Grange, a grand estate that basks in golden sunshine. The contrast of the Thrushcross Grange highlights the gloom that envelops Wuthering Heights. Sometimes, an entire story plot works as a foil. Many tragic Indian films made in the 1960s and 70s followed a pattern of having a parallel storyline of a lighter tone where the humour of secondary characters provided much-needed relief from tension of the main plot. In a different way, in William Shakespeare’s Hamlet, the stories of Laertes and Fortinbras are subplots working as foils to Hamlet. All three want to avenge the murders of their fathers. While Hamlet writes a play to get his uncle to confess, Fortinbras and Laertes…

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Cry to feel better with catharsis

The healing process of releasing deep repressed emotions such as grief, pity and fear, is known as catharsis, writes Roopa Banerjee How many times have we shed tears while watching a tragic movie and later felt relieved and less burdened? I’m sure on several occasions at least. The process of releasing deep repressed emotions such as grief, pity and fear, is known as catharsis. It is based on the belief that emotional release restores emotional balance. Its earliest known use in literature is by the Greek philosopher Aristotle who deployed it in his tragic staged dramas. The belief was that, when people viewed on-stage misfortune and reacted emotionally to it, it subsequently reduced the stress of the audience. Catharsis comes from the Greek word katharsis, which translates into cleansing or purification. Aristotle coined the word based on the medical use of purgative drugs or herbs which cleanse the body. He applied this metaphor for literature, where written or uttered words that arouse strong emotions cleanse the mind. He believed that an audience’s empathy with actors’ emotions helped them control their emotions subsequently. People experience catharsis in different ways. Junking mementos of a partner after a break-up or divorce, scattering ashes of a loved one over a treasured spot, or even a celebratory graduation ceremony to mark the end of college, are examples of catharsis. Writers and playwrights have used catharsis liberally in literature. The bard William Shakespeare used catharsis in many of his plays, with the best examples in Othello. In the denouement, many of the lead characters meet with tragic ends. For instance Othello realises his folly too late and kills himself. The catharsis for the audience comes from the dread of being deceived by a friend, sharing extreme repentance, and by witnessing Othello’s suicide, the audience learns to beware of false friends. A more recent example of catharsis is from John Green’s novel, The Fault in Our Stars. The reason behind the novel’s soaring popularity is the catharsis provided in its tragic theme. In the climax, Hazel is reflecting on the loss of Augustus. The words about infinity are cathartic for her and the audience because as she mourns his death she also experiences gratitude that Augustus existed at all. Dumbledore watched her fly away, and as her silvery glow faded, he turned back to Snape, and his eyes were full of tears. “After all this time?” “Always,” said Snape. Fans of the Harry Potter series will recognise these lines by J.K. Rowling. The moment of catharsis is when Harry is gazing into Snape’s memories and it is disclosed that Snape never stopped loving Harry’s mother, Lily. That’s when reader realises that everything Snape did was in honour of her memory. This catharsis allows the reader and Harry to feel the deep melancholy of Snape’s life. The reader begins to ponder about the lengths she would go to honour a loved one’s memory. Sometimes, literary characters have cathartic experiences as well. For example, in Virginia Woolf’s To the…

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Out of order with Hyperbaton

Hyperbaton is a figure of speech in which words, phrases, and clauses are rearranged in a sentence, without altering the meaning, writes Roopa Banerjee “A nice time we had, the ducks playing, watching, the duck pond.” This sentence made you pause, I know. What I meant to say was “We had a nice time at the lake watching the ducks play in the duck pond.” However what I said in the opening sentence, though, was more poetic and interesting. That is because it was a hyperbaton. Hyperbaton is a figure of speech in which words, phrases, and clauses are rearranged in a sentence, without altering the meaning. It is popularly known as the literary device of disorder. It comes from the Greek hyperbaton (pronounced hy-pur-buh-ton) which means ‘transposition’ i.e, rearrangement of words. Writers use hyperbaton to create emphasis and rhetorical effect. When words are arranged differently, readers are jolted into paying attention as it interrupts the natural flow of sentences. It is a unique literary form because it allows writers to bypass grammatical rules and expectations to create dramatic effect. When using hyperbaton a writer has full liberty to rearrange words in a sentence, moving all or most or even just one word. Hyperbaton is commonly used in poetry, particularly in rhyming and metered poems. Disrupted sentences prompt readers to slow down and soak in the emotions and full meaning of a poem. An example is this verse from T. S. Eliot’s Wasteland: You cannot say, or guess, for you know only A heap of broken images, where the sun beats, And the dead tree gives no shelter, the cricket no relief, And the dry stone no sound of water. Poets such as E.E. Cummings used hyperbaton to give an ambiguous feel to their fulminations: Women and men (both little and small) Cared for anyone not at all they sowed their isn’t they reaped their same sun moon stars rain children guessed (but only a few) and down they forgot as up they grew … The bard William Shakespeare has also used hyperbaton to great effect in many of his plays. For instance, these lines from Julius Caesar give emotional depth by playing with the position of words. His coward lips did from their colour fly And that same eye whose bend doth awe the world Did lose his lustre. I did hear him groan, Ay, and that tongue of his that bade the Romans Mark him and write his speeches in their books. Films and television serials also use hyperbaton for effect and emphasis. Fans of Star Wars will agree that Yoda is perhaps the most prolific user of this literary device of disorder. Always with you it cannot be done. You do nothing that I say. You must unlearn what you have learned. Try not! Do. Or do not. There is no try. Yoda acquired cult status for his strange way of speaking, thanks to use of hyperbaton. However sometimes hyperbatons cause confusion in listeners’ minds. This was…

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Speak your mind with soliloquies

Soliloquy comes from the Latin soliloquium, which means talking to oneself -Roopa Banerjee Soliloquy is expressing thoughts aloud, without addressing another person or persons. It comes from the Latin word soliloquium, which means ‘talking to oneself.’ This literary form was popularised in the 16th century by the bard William Shakespeare. An example is when Romeo declares his love for Juliet in the legendary balcony scene. “But soft! What light through yonder window breaks?” or when Macbeth is contemplating killing Duncan, “Is this a dagger I see before me?” Many people equate a soliloquy with monologue. But there is a big difference. In a soliloquy, the speaker is addressing himself/herself, while in a monologue the speaker is addressing an individual or others. A soliloquy is when inner sentiments are expressed aloud without addressing anyone in particular. In literature, soliloquies serve the purpose of protagonists expressing thoughts and emotions not to be disclosed to others. Soliloquy enables writers to create dramatic irony, a plot stratagem to highlight a difference between a character’s knowledge of a situation, and of the audience. The audience is aware of some crucial piece of evidence, while the characters most affected by the information, are clueless about it. Hamlet’s Act III, Scene I soliloquy is perhaps the most famous in English literature. To be, or not to be — that is the question: Whether ’tis nobler in the mind to suffer The slings and arrows of outrageous fortune Or to take arms against a sea of troubles And by opposing end them. Though soliloquy was a staple in Elizabethan plays, it’s rare in modern dramatics. However some modern films have used soliloquy to great acclaim. For instance Travis Bickle’s soliloquy in the Hollywood movie Taxi Driver directed by Martin Scorcese is iconic and oft parodied in popular culture. The Bollywood movie Devdas in its Bimal Roy avatar as well as the Sanjay Leela Bhansali version has intense soliloquies by the protagonist. Another modern example is the television serial House of Cards where Frank Underwood occasionally directly addresses soliloquies to the camera when other characters are not on screen or within earshot. There are also several fine examples of soliloquies in Disney films. Dory’s tear-jerker soliloquy is a memorable finale of Finding Nemo. Similarly, Anton ego in Ratatouille and Rapunzel’s lines in Tangled are classic examples of modern soliloquies. Writers select characters with intense feelings and/or individuals confronted with tough decisions and dilemmas to emote soliloquies. This achieves the dual purpose of helping the audience/reader understand what’s in the character’s mind and to earn her the audience’s sympathy. Exercise: Identify these famous soliloquies of English literature: It must be by his death: and for my part, I know no personal cause to spurn at him, But for the general. He would be crown’d How that might change his nature, there’s the question. O, she doth teach the torches to burn bright! It seems she hangs upon the cheek of night Like a rich jewel in an Ethiope’s ear; Beauty…

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Ride the magic carpet of Imagery

Imagery is a literary form that uses figurative language to evoke a sensory experience and create a picture with words ROOPA BANERJEE Most readers will agree that the reason we love to read books is that they transport us to different worlds. For the few moments, minutes or hours that we read, we live in an imaginary world created by the author. Books that manage this feat most admirably are ones that use imagery generously. Imagery is a literary form that uses figurative language to evoke sensory experiences and create pictures with words for readers. It is a bridge between real and imaginary worlds. Imagery transports readers to faraway lands and invests us with the varied emotions of joy and sorrow experienced by the characters in a book or novel. Imagery comes from the word ‘image’ and originally referred to physical art such as sculptures and statues. With time, its use evolved to describing a writer’s or artist’s portrayal of places, events and experiences. There are five types of imagery, each related to one of the human senses: visual (sight), auditory (hearing), olfactory (smell), gustatory (taste), and tactile (touch). For instance the poem Daffodils by William Wordsworth (1770-1850) is a brilliant example of visual imagery: Beside the lake, beneath the trees, Fluttering and dancing in the breeze. Poets use imagery liberally. Robert Frost (1874-1963) used powerful auditory as well as visual imagery in his poem After Apple Picking: I feel the ladder sway as the boughs bend. And I keep hearing from the cellar bin The rumbling sound Of load on load of apples coming in. While reading these lines, readers are transferred to the apple picking scene as they feel the ladder sway and hear the rumble of apples rolling into the cellar bin. Another interesting example of imagery is in J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter and the Sorcerer’s Stone: A breeze ruffled the neat hedges of Privet Drive, which lay silent and tidy under the inky sky, the very last place you would expect astonishing things to happen. Imagery is used by writers to engage and enable readers to experience events and places they are reading about. Imagery enables creation of 3D experiences for readers. Another example of effective use of imagery is in novelist Cormac McCarthy’s novel The Road. He uses imagery to describe the fire on the distant ridge, the feel of the cold air, and the emotions of the man. A forest fire was making its way along the tinderbox ridges above them, flaring and shimmering against the overcast like the northern lights. Cold as it was, he stood there a long time. The colour of it moved something in him long forgotten. The next time you read a book or hear a song whose words transport you to another world, remember to appreciate the skill of the writer who created this magical imagery. The words that spin the web of imagery are your portal to magical lands. EXERCISE: Identify the type of imagery used in…

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Beyond comparison with conceit

An intersection between a simile and metaphor, this literary form captures the reader/listener’s attention by comparing two dissimilar objects – Roopa Banerjee When someone says, ‘A broken heart is like a damaged clock,’ it seems an unlikely comparison but yet it makes the point. A heart and clock are dissimilar objects, but this ingenious analogy prompts us to compare them and appreciate their similarities. A broken heart is like a broken clock, which can be mended with care. This comparison of dissimilar objects and ideas is defined as conceit. The objective of this literary form is to arrest the reader/ listener’ s attention by comparing two unrelated objects. It is an intersection between a simile and metaphor and is more effective because it prompts deeper reflection. Conceits are of two types: Petrarchan and metaphysical. Petrarchan conceits were prominently used in Renaissance literature of the 14th and 15th centuries, with poets using them in Petrarchan sonnets —14-line poems about love. In these poems, conceits were used to compare lovers with attractive elements of nature. For instance ‘Roses danced in the apple of her cheeks’ penned by Italian poet Petrarch (1304- 1374), after whom this style of conceit is named. Metaphysical conceits are more complex as they compare a person or her character trait with the world. The best examples are found in the metaphysical poems of John Donne (1572-1631) who in one instance compared lover’s souls with a mundane compass. Although the two are dissimilar to the point of being an absurd comparison, it is true that the arms of a compass can never really part, just like lovers’ souls. The great bard William Shakespeare used metaphysical conceit lavishly in his writing while shunning, and/or mocking Petrarchan conceit. In his Sonnet 130, Shakespeare writes, ‘My mistress’ eyes are nothing like the sun; Coral is far more red than her lips’ red’ While Shakespeare eschewed Petrarchan conceits such as those comparing a lover’s eyes to the sun, he displayed a distinct fondness for metaphysical conceit. In Macbeth, Shakespeare writes, ‘Sleep that knits up the ravell’d sleeve of care, The death of each day’s life, sore labour’s bath’ Herein, sleep is compared with death as well as a bath. The intent is to draw readers’ attention to the guilt that Macbeth is experiencing and how his conscience disturbs him. With passing of years, conceits usage became unpopular because they seemed coerced and far-fetched. Metaphysical conceit, in particular, became unpopular as people began to tire of vague and outlandish comparisons which sometimes defied belief and stretched over too many paragraphs. In the 17th century, poets including Samuel Johnson opined that metaphysical conceit gave the impression of two things being “yoked by violence together”. Other poets including Emily Dickinson used conceit but stayed away from both Petrarchan as well as metaphysical conceit. Her famous poem ‘Because I Could Not Stop for Death’ compares a carriage ride with old age moving towards death. This literary form has crept into daily conversations. If you hear people mouthing…

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