Fun with words

Out of time with Anachronism

Anachronism is when a person, object or event of a different time and era makes an appearance in a different time period – Roopa Banerjee Fans of the movie Back to the Future (1985) will remember the scene when Marty McFly replays rock-n-roll pioneer Chuck Berry’s 1958 hit Johnny B. Goode. This is a carefully placed anachronism — defined as when a person, object or event of a different time and era is consciously inserted in a different time period. For instance, if a story which is set in Victorian England features a shopping mall, it would be an anachronism. An error in chronology, anachronism originates from the Latin word anachronismus which means ‘an error in computing time or finding dates’, as well as the Greek anakhronismos i.e ‘refer to wrong time’. Ana means ‘against’ and khronos ‘time.’ Writers/filmmakers often use anachronisms to add an element of humour and surprise to a story. Imagine filming a corporate board meeting with people dressed in suits while warriors from the 16th century walk past, with no explanation at all. This would, of course, only be used if the intention is to create humour. The Flintstones, Disney’s Aladdin, and the Shrek film series are all brilliant examples of comical anachronism. Language anachronism is when modern language is used for films set in the ancient past. This is an accepted style as few would understand a period film if the characters mouthed dialogues written in 14th century English. Sometimes, anachronisms are included to simplify a scene for the reader. In William Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar, Cassius says: “The clock has stricken three,” although clocks were not invented until many hundreds of years later. Nevertheless, Shakespeare mentions the clock because referring to a Roman sundial would have confused the audience and diluted the essence of the plot. This is substantiated by novelist Sir Walter Scott who said, “It is necessary, for exciting interest of any kind, that the subject assumed should be, as it were, translated into the manners as well as the language of the age we live in.” An example of intentional anachronism is in a scene from Sofia Coppola’s feature film Marie Antoinette where a pair of Converse sneakers is placed next to staid period-appropriate shoes. Coppola clarified that this was intentional to accentuate Antoinette’s youth. She didn’t want the film to be a history lesson, but an impressionist narrative. Anachronisms can also happen as an error, mostly because of inadequate research or just sloppy planning. A famous example of this is in the cult TV drama series Game of Thrones where viewers were quick to notice a stray Starbucks coffee cup in a scene featuring Daenerys Targaryen. This scene prompted much hilarity and social media memes. In the film Raiders of the Lost Ark, there is a map showing Indiana Jones’ journey route near Thailand en route to Nepal. This is an unintentional blooper as the film is set in 1939 when Thailand was known as Siam. Here’s a quiz asking you…

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Out of the question with hypophora

Hypophora is a figure of speech in which a speaker/writer raises a question and immediately provides an answer – Roopa Banerjee Ask yourself a question and answer it yourself. Does that sound weird? It shouldn’t, as it is a popular literary device used by writers and speakers. Hypophora is a figure of speech in which a speaker writer raises a question and immediately provides an answer. The etymology of hypophora is from the Greek word ipofora, meaning ‘carrying under’ or ‘putting under’. In literature, hypophora has been liberally used by many authors. For instance children’s author E.B. White (1899-1995) in his best-selling novel Charlotte’s Web writes: “After all, what’s a life, anyway? We’re born, we live a little while, we die. A spider’s life can’t help being something of a mess, with all this trapping and eating flies. By helping you, perhaps I was trying to lift up my life a trifle. Heaven knows anyone’s life can stand a little of that.” British prime minister Winston Churchill famously made use of hypophora in a speech delivered during World War II (June 4, 1940): “You ask, what is our policy? I will say: It is to wage war, by sea, land, and air, with all our might and with all the strength.” The advantage of using hypophora in political speeches and literary works is that it engages audiences and readers by simulating probable conversations with them. In actual form, hypophora is the question and anthyphophora the answer. However, over time, hypophora has become the common usage term for both the question and answer. Many people tend to confuse hypophora with rhetorical questions. The difference between the two is that hypophora requires the writer/speaker to provide an answer, whereas the rhetorical question does not. Hypophora is also employed to initiate new debates on topics of importance about which addressees might not have sufficient information. In addition, it can be applied as a directional device to veer the audience’s attention to relevant topics. Films and movies also use hypophora liberally. An example: “And how’d you get that (becoming King), eh? By exploiting the workers! By hanging on to outdated imperialist dogma which perpetuates the economic and social differences in our society.” — Monty Python, Monty Python and the Holy Grail (1975) Hypophora has also been used to great advantage in advertising. Planting a thought in the mind of readers and then answering it in a way that leads them to think about their product is invaluable for advertisers. Old Spice advertisements use several hypophora: “Does your man look like me? No. Can he smell like me? Yes. Should he use Old Spice body wash? I don’t know. Do you like the smell of adventure? Do you want a man who smells like he can bake you a gourmet cake in the dream kitchen he built for you with his own hands? Of course, you do.” Exercise Identify the literary works from which the following hypophoras are excerpted: 1. “Who knows? And what does…

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Get the lion’s share of zoomorphism

Zoomorphism is assigning animal-like qualities to humans, gods, and inanimate objects – Roopa Banerjee Spiderman, Spiderman! Does whatever a spider can. Spins a web any size, Catches thieves, just like flies. Look out! Here comes the Spiderman! Most of us are familiar with these catchy lines from the theme song of the cult Spiderman cartoon and movie series. But perhaps not so well known is that this song uses a popular literary device — zoomorphism — to attribute animal qualities to human beings. Zoomorphism is giving animal-like qualities to humans, gods, inanimate objects as well as assigning features of one animal to another. For instance when a cat in a cartoon strip says ‘woof,’ it’s zoomorphism. However, when gods shape-shift and take on an animal form as it often happens in Greek mythology, it’s not zoomorphism but its sub-set known as therianthropy. Some of us tend to get confused between zoomorphism and anthropomorphism (featured in PW June 2019). Whereas, they are exactly opposite. While anthropomorphism is assigning of human qualities to animals, zoomorphism does the reverse by giving animal qualities to humans. Comic book writers have had a field day with this literary device as they have liberally ideated characters that are human but with animal qualities. Catwoman, Batman, Antman, Black Panther and Spiderman are just a few examples of myriad superheroes that have flowed out of writers’ pens using zoomorphisms. Numerous authors have also used zoomorphism to emphasise danger and intimidation. In Philip Pullman’s The Golden Compass, the capital of Lord Asriel is described as a wild animal in a cage, and his daemon, which is the character that represents him, is dangerous and intimidating. J.K. Rowling’s Harry Potter series has many characters that can shape shift and turn into animals. Sirius Black turns into a dog in order to accompany Harry unnoticed to the railway station while Professor McGonagall transforms into a tabby cat while teaching the class about Animagi (wizards who can transform at will into animals). In The Odyssey by Homer, Odysseus and his men meet Circe the goddess of magic who lures them to a grand feast. The food is laced with deadly potions and the men transform into swine. Zoomorphism is often used in common parlance. For instance “she was barking up the wrong tree” by doubting him; “he was champing at the bit” at the beginning of the meeting; and the government “ruffled some feathers” by going ahead with the new resolution. Phrases such as ‘fluttering of the heart’ (bird) and ‘like the roar of the ocean’ (beast) are also zoomorphisms. Architecture has also taken a few leaves from the book of zoomorphism by creating buildings or cities bearing semblance to animals. For instance, the city of Juba in South Sudan resembles the shape of a rhinoceros. Exercise 1. Which of these is an example of zoomorphism? A. Wolverine B. Superman C. Thor 2. Which animal does James Potter transform into in the Harry Potter series? A Beetle B Stag C Horse 3.…

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Play your cards right when it comes to clichés

At some point of time all clichés were excellently worded phrases. In fact, so well-liked that they were overused, moving gradually to the category of disliked axioms – Roopa Banerjee A cliché is a phrase, idea or expression that has been overused to the extent that it loses its original meaning and uniqueness. Sometimes, events or occasions that are predictable are also referred to as clichés. The word cliché has its origin in the French clicher, meaning ‘to click’ — the clicking sound made by a printer’s metal stereotyping plate. Thus, it implies lifting and reproducing something unchanged and is a good metaphor for clichéd writing abounding in worn out and much too used phrases. It’s pertinent to note that at some point of time all clichés were excellently worded. In fact, they were so good and liked that they were overused, moving gradually to the category of tired disliked axioms. ‘In the nick of time’ and ‘only time will tell’ were surely refreshing phrases at the time of their origin, but today they are clichés. The French poet Gérard de Nerval rightly declared: ‘The first man who compared a woman to a rose was a poet, the second, an imbecile. However, not all phrases oft used are categorised as clichés. ‘I now pronounce you man and wife’ and ‘I do solemnly swear’ are frequently used but are, by no means, clichés. Nor is ‘Happy Birthday’! Many common similes are now clichés. Writing or speaking about something being ‘as swift as a cheetah’ or ‘as cunning as a fox’ is trite. But clichés are not the sole horror of the written world. Movies and films abound with them. For instance, the hero being able to shoot down bad guys precisely while villains miss every time is one of the worst movie clichés. Every Star Wars fan has wondered why all the stormtroopers miss almost every shot. Cars never start on the first try in an escape and a film shot in Paris has the Eiffel tower seen from every window. These are clichés that make eyes roll every time. English literature has given us numerous literary gems that have become clichés. The famous lines from William Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet: ‘A rose by any other name would smell as sweet’ as well as ‘All that glitters is not gold’ from Merchant of Venice now have a dubious reputation. Similarly, Shakespeare would be sad to see ‘Jealousy is the green-eyed monster’ from Othello has moved to the cliché world. Some story plots can be cliched, too. For example, an orphan growing up to conquer all evil is a fantasy cliché. That is not to say that no clichés work in the publishing or film world. Harry Potter is a fine example of a fantasy plot cliché which resonated with readers. In addition, there are character clichés. For instance, a plain Jane who suddenly becomes glamorous before the denouement and marries the man of her dreams. Then, there are setting clichés where rain…

English playwright Samuel Johnson referred to punning as the lowest form of humour, but Alfred Hitchcock, famous Hollywood producer and director, said puns are the highest form of literature… – Roopa Banerjee “You can tune a guitar, but you can’t tuna fish. Unless of course, you play bass,” said Douglas Adams (1952-2001), British author, essayist and satirist famously. The reason why this quote tickles the funny bone is because of the clever use of puns. In the first sentence, Adams uses puns for the comparable sounds of “tune a” and “tuna,” while in the second sentence, he plays on the two connotations of the word “bass” — the musical instrument, which is also a fish species. A pun is a literary device that plays with words that have multiple meanings or with words that sound similar but have different meanings. Puns are used humourously in most cases and for their rhetorical effect. However, puns are not as modern as commonly believed. They date back to the ancient Sumerian and Egyptian civilisations. In ancient Egypt, puns were heavily used in the development of myths and interpretation of dreams. The communication systems of Sumerian and Egyptian civilisations, including Egyptian hieroglyphs, were based on punning. Puns also have a long history in literature. For example, the Roman playwright Plautus was famous for his puns and word games. Aka paranomasia, there are various types of puns. The most common is the homophonic pun where homophones (word pairs which sound alike but do not have the same meaning) are used. For example, ‘Question: Why do we still have troops in Germany? Answer: To keep the Russians in Czech’. In homographic pun, words used are homographs (same spelling but different meanings and sounds). For example, “The wild oats of my sow gave us many piglets”. The Douglas Adams quote at the start of this essay is also another example of a homographic pun. A combination of homophonic and homographic pun is known as homonymic pun. For example, American writer Isaac Asimov (1920-1992) had joked, ‘Did you hear about the little moron who strained himself while running into the screen door?’ playing on strained as “to give much effort” and “to filter”. Puns are often used in punch lines of jokes and witticisms. Such jokes are called feghoots — anecdotes that end with a line containing a pun for humorous effect. A non-humorous pun is also a standard poetic device in literature. Among the famous writers who used puns are Alexander Pope, Robert Bloch, Lewis Carroll and John Donne. William Shakespeare is estimated to have used over 3,000 puns in his plays. For instance in Richard III: “Now is the winter of our discontent made glorious summer by this son of York” (son/sun). There are varying opinions on whether puns should be used in literature. While the famous English playwright and poet Samuel Johnson disparagingly referred to punning as the lowest form of humour, Alfred Hitchcock, famous Hollywood producer and director, said they are the highest form of…

This literary device of placing two contrasting concepts, characters, or ideas near or adjacent to each other is generously used by writers to create effect and highlight differences – Roopa Banerjee If you are served hot pasta with chilled vanilla ice-cream, would it make you pause as these two foods are unlikely companions on a plate? The placing of two elements with contrasting effect is juxtaposition. This literary device of placing two contrasting concepts, characters, or ideas near or adjacent to each other is generously used by writers to create effect and highlight differences. The word juxtaposition originates from the Latin word justa which means ‘beside or near’ and the French position. This origin initially created the French word ‘juxtaposition’ which through common usage became part and parcel of the English language. Juxtapose is its accepted verb form. In fact, juxtapose is one of the 30,000 most commonly used words of the Collins Dictionary. Many English proverbs use juxtaposition for effect. For example, ‘What’s good for the goose is good for the gander’ or ‘When it rains, it pours’ are types of contrasting juxtapositions. Goose and gander are contrasting genders while rain and pour show a difference in magnitude. Similarly, ‘All’s fair in love and war’ is a contrast with love and war being opposites, just as ‘Beggars can’t be choosers’ is another study in contrast. ‘Making a mountain out of a molehill’ juxtaposes the magnitude from small to big while ‘You can’t teach an old dog new tricks’ is another example of juxtaposition. ‘When the cat’s away the mice will play’ is a clever instance of juxtaposition as the contrast is not so obvious and yet the cat is an authoritative figure, while the mice remain the submissive entity. It conveys the meaning that, without an authority figure watching over them, people will do what they want. Literature abounds in juxtaposition. The famous opening lines of A Tale of Two Cities by Charles Dickens are, without doubt, the most perfect and extended example of this literary device. “It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the age of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of Light, it was the season of Darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us, we were all going direct to Heaven, we were all going direct the other way.” The title A Tale of Two Cities implies the comparison of two places and the opening paragraph, filled with juxtapositions, sets the theme of contrasting doubles continuing throughout the book. The epic novel goes on to highlight the powerful struggle between love and hatred, freedom and oppression, and good and evil that lead up to the French Revolution. For students of this literary device, reading A Tale of Cities is a great way to understand how juxtaposition…

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Turning a phrase with an antimetabole

The repeating of a phrase in reverse order is known as an antimetabole – Roopa Banerjee The sentence ‘Fair is foul and foul is fair’ hits a lyrical and rhetorical note because of the placement of words in reverse order. This repeating of a phrase in reverse order is known as an antimetabole. Antimetabole is derived from the Greek words anti which means against or opposite and metabole i.e change. This literary device has been used since 450 BC, from the time of Greek philosopher Socrates. His famous quote: ‘Eat to live, not live to eat’ is one of the earliest examples of an antimetabole. However merely reversing the meaning is not enough to create an antimetabole. The words and grammatical structure should also be swapped to contrast the meaning. American actress and comedienne Mae West’s memorable quote: “It’s not the men in my life; it’s the life in my men I’m worried about,” is a classic example of creating a contrast in meaning. Here, the words, rhythm, and grammatical structure in the second phrase are exactly similar to the first, but the meaning is the mirror opposite. An essential component of an effective antimetabole is that it should have a logical premise. Reversing a phrase for the sake of it is not enough. If the first half of the antimetabole is relatable, the listener will be able to make sense of the second. Thus, “It is not about the years in your life, but about the life in your years that matter,” is logically and grammatically correct and conveys a message to readers. This literary device is most popular with world leaders and politicians because antimetaboles are rhetorical, easy to remember, memorable and appeal to audiences. An oft-cited example is “Ask not what your country can do for you, but ask what you can do for your country,” by the late US President John F. Kennedy. Another popular example is Winston Churchill saying “It is not even the beginning of the end but is perhaps, the end of the beginning,” in his 1942 speech about the second battle of El Alamein. Dr. Martin Luther King, renowned for his powerful oratory skills famously said, “Hate destroys a man’s sense of values and his objectivity. It causes him to describe the beautiful as ugly and the ugly as beautiful, and to confuse the true with the false and the false with the true.” In a more recent example, former US President Barack Obama said, “You stood up for America, now America must stand up for you” (2011). Antimetaboles are also popular with advertising copywriters. For instance the tag line of Band Aid reads: “I am stuck on band-aid, because band-aid’s stuck on me”. Scuba diving enthusiasts would have often heard this from their instructors, “Plan your dive, dive your plan.” Other examples: “When the going gets tough, the tough get going” and “Fail to prepare and you prepare to fail”. Literature abounds in antimetaboles. The legendary playwright William Shakespeare used it…

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What’s an anthropomorphism? Let Mickey Mouse explain

Anthropomorphism is the attribution of human characteristics and qualities to animals and/or deities – Roopa Banerjee Many generations have grown up admiring the wisdom of Winnie the Pooh and laughing at the antics of Mickey Mouse. The persuasiveness with which these characters were written cloaked the fact that they were fictional animal protagonists displaying human attributes and emotions. Winnie the Pooh and Mickey Mouse are great examples of anthropomorphism — the attribution of human characteristics and qualities to animals and/or deities. Anthropomorphism is derived from a combination of the Greek words ánthrōpos and morphē, meaning ‘human’ and ‘form’, respectively. Ancient Greek dramas portrayed talking animals as humans or deities. Popular culture is replete with examples of anthropomorphisms, in particular children’s books and television. Thomas the Tank Engine is a fictional anthropomorphised steam locomotive in The Railway Series authored by Rev. W. Awdry 1911-1997), and later developed as a popular TV series in the UK. Mickey Mouse and Donald Duck, created by American animator/movie producer Walt Disney (1901-1966), are probably among the earliest American fictional characters to capture the imagination of children worldwide. Sports team mascots are often animals attributed with the human trait of cheering on their teams. The 2011 Cricket World Cup tournament hosted by India, Sri Lanka and Bangladesh, had Stumpy the elephant as its mascot. Adults are not immune to the magic of anthropomorphisms. British author George Orwell’s Animal Farm features animals as its main protagonists (along with humans) and brilliantly depicts events leading up to the Russian Revolution of 1917 followed by the Stalinist era. The Peanuts comics created by American cartoonist Charles Schulz (1922-2000) use anthropomorphism in unusual ways to portray the lives of Charlie Brown and friends. Snoopy, Charlie Brown’s dog, has enlightening conversations with Woodstock, the bird, on life’s purpose and other existential troubles, albeit in lighter vein. Ancient Indian animal folk tales and fables are among the best examples of anthropomorphism. A case in point is the Jataka Tales. This capacious body of literature, dating back to the 4th century BC, depicts the previous births of Lord Gautam Buddha in both human and animal form. Fascinating Jataka stories include ‘The ox who envied the pig’, ‘The swan with the golden feathers’ and ‘The turtle who couldn’t stop talking’. Aesop’s Fables, a collection of stories credited to Aesop, a slave and storyteller believed to have lived in ancient Greece between 620 and 564 BC, are another brilliant example of anthropomorphism. ‘The lion in love’ from Aesop’s Fables is one of the earliest examples of anthropomorphism in Greek literature. In this fascinating tale, a lion falls in love with a beautiful woman and proposes marriage to her parents. But the parents are hesitant to agree to their daughter marrying a lion, yet they don’t want to enrage the King of Beasts. Plainly, there is the supposition that the lion can talk to the girl’s parents and yet, interestingly, they are hesitant to establish filial relations with an animal. This literary device lends itself to intermingling…

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Neologism is about coining new words

The words cold-blooded, blushing and amazement have something in common. English bard and playwright William Shakespeare (1564-1616) invented them. They didn’t exist before he coined them. Neologism is the formation of a new word or phrase which often becomes part of the English language after common use. While many neologisms have become part and parcel of the English vocabulary, there are some which haven’t become common yet but are fascinating, nevertheless. For example, sarchasm was coined as a blend of sarcasm+chasm. Sarchasm denotes the gulf between an author of sarcastic witticism and a person who doesn’t get it. Similarly, blutter is a combination of blubber and stutter. It means a long, rambling speech going nowhere. The charm of the English language is that it’s constantly evolving, incorporating new words such as selfie, meme and hashtags every day. Neologisms are of three different types: portmanteau (blend words), derived and transferred words. Portmanteau or blend words are created by combining existing words. For e.g smog=smoke+fog, brunch=breakfast+lunch. Derived words are derived from original Latin or Greek phrases. For instance, villa is Latin for house and copious is derived from the Latin copia. Transferred words use phrases directly from other languages and adjust the spelling or sound to neologise it fully. For example, the word ‘herbs’ is transferred from the French herbes while ‘alligator’ comes from the Spanish el lagarto. Examples of neologism abound in literature as authors love creating new words. For instance Shakespeare coined ‘bedazzled’. “Pardon, old father, my mistaking eyes, that have been so bedazzled with the sun that everything I look on seemeth green” (Taming of the Shrew). Author Lewis Carroll fans will remember the word ‘jabberwocky’ from his classic Alice in Wonderland. Carroll coined it to a mix of unintelligible words. The word ‘nerd’ was coined by American children’s author Theodor Seuss Geisel in his poem If I Ran the Zoo. ‘And then, just to show them, I’ll sail to Ka-Troo And Bring Back an It-Kutch a Preep and a Proo A Nerkle a Nerd and a Seersucker, too!’ English historian and writer Horace Walpole made up ‘serendipity’ after reading a Sri Lankan fairy tale The Princes of Serendip in which three princes had the happy coincidence of making fantastic discoveries by accident. Pop culture has produced its own examples of neologisms. For instance ‘meh’ denotes anything boring or drab. The origin is uncertain; some believe it was first used in The Simpsons while others say it owes its origin to the Yiddish term mnyeh. ‘Chillax’ and ‘dude’ are other instances of pop neologisms. All this prompts the question: Can anyone create a neologism? The answer is yes. Human beings have a wide range of emotions and all of them don’t have descriptive words yet. However, the reach and usage of the new word subsequent to its creation is what decides whether it is accepted into the English language or disappears into obscurity. So, how does one coin a new word? Well, you can think of an emotion or…

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The language of Mathematics

Every mathematical number or symbol has a corresponding word or phrase. Mathematics has a language of its own – Roopa Banerjee Mathematics is associated with numbers and symbols. But, it’s also associated with intriguing words. Every mathematical number or symbol has a corresponding word or phrase. Math has a language of its own. The deeper we study the subject, the more likely we will come across words that are unique to this scientific discipline. Most commonly used words in maths owe their origin to Old English. When the Romans conquered Britain, the local population spoke Celtic. The Romans brought Latin with them and later, other invaders brought their languages. Thus, developed the Anglo-Saxon language aka Old English. Number words such as one, two, three, four and measurement terms such as foot, yard, etc originate from Old English. French words were introduced after the Norman conquest of England in 1066. Some French origin words include surface and surjection. Most mathematical terms are of Latin origin. Arithmetic is derived from arithmetica. Interestingly, until the middle ages, most math words had an extra ‘r’ (eg. arithmetrika). A large body of mathematical work was produced between 300 BC and 300 AD by Greek mathematicians Euclid and Archimedes among others. They gave us the Greek math words such as isosceles and convex. Unlike other sciences where new jargon has to be approved by international organisations such as the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), math words formation is left to individual initiative. Therefore the process of word formation in maths is often quite unpredictable. Moreover many specialised words associated with important concepts were not coined for years — mathematicians used the word radius for centuries before ‘diameter’ came into being. Addition and fraction were coined as early as 1100 AD while determinant came into existence as late as 1810. Some familiar math words which are part of our daily usage today were heavily opposed when coined. For instance matrix and statistics received a lot of opposition as the origin of these words didn’t mean what they denote in mathematics. There is also an abundance of synonyms in this science — e.g modulus and absolute value, characteristic function and indicator function. Many mathematical concepts such as the Abbe-Helmert Criterion and Zorn’s Lemma incorporate the names of people. Did you know? Algebra was coined by Persian scholar/astronomer Al-Khowarizmi in 825 AD. The origin Arabic word is al-jabr which means the reunion of broken parts, where a subtracted quantity on one side of an equation became an added quantity when moved to the other side. Decimal is derived from the Latin decimus, meaning ‘tenth’. Parabola was coined by Greek philosopher Apollonius, who had words for all three conic sections. Plus or minus were used commonly by the Romans to indicate ‘more or less’. Quiz Guess the mathematical term that was derived from the origin as stated below: 1. A Greek word Circulus (meaning to hoop around or from a diminutive of the circular Roman circus). 2.…

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In the name of EPONYMS

Eponym is a name/ noun formed after a person. It helps us remember important people in history who have contributed to shaping the human condition Roopa Banerjee It’s common practice to honour a person by naming a street/institution after her, but highly uncommon to have a word named after an individual. Eponym is a name/ noun formed after a person. For instance, the Elizabethan age pertains to Queen Elizabeth I of England. Elizabethan is an eponym. The earliest recorded eponym dates back to the second millennium B.C, when the Assyrians named each year after a royal official appointed that year. Similarly, fifth-century Athens is known as The Age of Pericles, named after its most famous statesman. In the modern world, many political trends were christened after politicians who set them. For example, Stalinism and Thatcherism. Many places — towns, cities or countries — are eponymously named. For example, Vancouver is named after explorer George Vancouver. Medical jargon boasts many eponyms with several diseases/viruses named after the site where they were discovered. These are known as geographic eponyms in medicine. Some examples: Bombay Blood group, Jaipur Foot and Rocky Mountain Spotted Fever. Plaster of Paris was named after the French capital when medicos there began using plaster to mend broken bones. Numerous verbs have also been derived from historical figures with their names linked with their ideas/innovations. The words boycott, chauvinist, quisling, and sandwich originate from personal names (Charles Boycott, Nicholas Chauvin, Major Vidkun Quisling and John Montagu, fourth Earl of Sandwich). Not surprisingly, famous people are eponyms for their innovative apparel. Cardigan is eponymous with the Earl of Cardigan and raglan is derived from Lord Raglan who saw action in the Crimean War. Unsurprisingly literature has inspired eponyms. It’s common to find eponymous terms in literary criticism such as Dickensenian for melodramatic poetry and eccentric characters, and Proustian for personal memories. Similarly, mythology has spawned many an eponym such as someone having the Midas touch, an Achilles’ heel and being Herculean or a Venus. Scientists are often honoured for their innovations through linking their names with products — Rudolf Diesel, Alessandro Volta, and James Watt, or to processes (galvanism) or calculus (algorithm). Likewise, botanists have plants named after them, such as magnolia and poinsettia. Alzheimer’s disease is named after its discoverer Dr. Alois Alzheimer, a German physician, who presented the case history of a 51-year-old woman who suffered from a rare brain disorder. Avogadro’s number is named after early 19th-century Italian scientist Amedeo Avogadro, who, in 1811, first proposed that the volume of a gas (at a given pressure and temperature) is proportional to the number of atoms or molecules irrespective of the nature of a gas. It is common to have companies named after their founders. For instance when we refer to the eponymous founder of Ford Motor Company, we mean Henry Ford. Words are formed in many ways. Eponyms help us remember important people in history who have contributed to shaping the human condition. Exercise Which of…

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Loanwords indicate that the English language is constantly evolving by absorbing and assimilating words and phrases from other cultures and languages – Roopa Banerjee Are you going to a bungalow near the jungle wearing a khaki shirt carrying bangles bought from the bazaar?” Are you aware that the sentence in English has a large number of borrowed or loanwords from other languages — bungalow, jungle, khaki, bangles and bazaar? Loanwords are words borrowed from a foreign language with little or no modification. Philip Durkin, deputy chief editor of the Oxford English Dictionary, and author of Borrowed Words: A History of Loanwords in English, says that English has evolved into a global language by merrily borrowing from Latin, Greek, French, German, Spanish, Scandinavian and South Asian among other languages. According to the Germany-based Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, which maintains a World Loanword Database, “42 percent of English words are loanwords”. So, whether you prefer chai, a mojito or cappuccino, pause to remember these words have been borrowed or adapted from foreign languages and countries. Loanwords are formed when two cultures come in contact through immigration, trade, travel, cuisine etc. In particular, English has heavily borrowed words from other languages because of Britain’s colonial history. Every country it conquered or ruled in the heyday of the British empire (1757-1947) contributed, in some way, to the evolution of the English language. Another reason could be military conflict or political contact with other countries. For example, words such as glasnost and pogrom are of Russian origin while blitz is German. Interestingly many loan words are nouns, pertaining to food and drink. This is perhaps because the British couldn’t find English equivalents to many indigenous culinary delights, and it was simpler to absorb some words wholesale — like sushi (from Japan) or chutney and samosa (India) — into the English language. That’s how the Indian chai, basmati or balti, the French aperitif, croissant, baguette, have added zest and zing to the English language. Be it nouvelle cuisine (another loan phrase from France), bistro, or the Italian pizza, latte or cappuccino, these words are part and parcel of the English language. The Danish lego, Filipino yo-yo and Hungarian Rubik’s Cube today sound as English as any other. So do angst and kaput which are actually of German origin. Indian loanwords also abound. Words with spiritual connotations like avatar, yoga, guru and karma are now woven into contemporary English vocabulary. Ditto bungalow, pajamas, shampoo, kedgeree, jungle and bandana. Read this sentence carefully: ‘Although he carried a rucksack to kindergarten, he is an entrepreneur who made it big in his genre.’ Besides making little sense, this sentence has something else unusual about it. It contains four loanwords — rucksack, kindergarten, entrepreneur and genre. Yet this sentence doesn’t sound at all foreign. Indeed, most sentences we frame in English today are very likely to have some loanwords. The character of loanwords is that they merge discreetly and, very often, undetectably, into a language, helping it develop, grow…

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Fun with Words

Using Your Loaf with Cockney Rhyming Slang

Cockney rhyming slang, said to be London’s very own secret language, is wacky and wholly enjoyable, says Roopa Banerjee Cockney rhyming slang is an English dialect which originated in central London over 200 years ago, and is now a quirky touristy attraction of the city. But who is a cockney? According to the Oxford English Dictionary, a cockney is “one who has been born within the sound of Bow bells, a reference not, as often believed, to the eastern suburb of Bow, but to the church of Saint Mary le Bow, Cheapside, in the City of London.” The ‘grammar’ of cockney rhyming slang is to replace the word to be obscured with the first word of a phrase that rhymes with it. For instance, ‘rarely using his loaf of bread’ referred to someone not using his head, the rhyme being between ‘bread’ and ‘head’. To make understanding more difficult, the phrase is often used by omitting the rhyming word and said as ‘rarely using his loaf’. Naturally, someone unfamiliar with this wordplay would find it nearly impossible to understand what’s being said. Similarly, ‘apple and pairs’ is used for stairs. ‘Rabbit and pork’ means talk. ‘Adam and Eve’ is used for believe. ‘Can you Adam and Eve it’ is cockney slang for ‘Can you believe it’. ‘Bees and honey’ refers to money while ‘brown bread’ is slang for dead. ‘Custard and jelly’ to the telly (television), while ‘skin and blister’ means sister. You may feel much of this is Daffadown dilly (silly)! Origins According to linguist John Ayto’s Oxford Dictionary of Rhyming Slang, this dialect originated in the East End of London during the first half of the 19th century. The website www.cockneyrhymingslang.co.uk says that it was “invented in London in the 1840s by market traders, costermongers (sellers of fruit and vegetables from handcarts) and street hawkers”. Until the late 20th century, rhyming slang was also common in Australia, probably due to the formative influence of cockney on Australian English. Over the years, rhyming slang spread to other parts of the United Kingdom and countries where English is spoken. The slang was also reportedly used as a code language among thieves. Presumably, the idea was to obscure the meaning just enough to confuse potential eavesdroppers. Today, we find remnants of cockney rhyming slang only in England, especially in London. Moreover much of it has now been absorbed into conversational English. Quiz Here is a Cockney rhyming quiz for you! 1. If a friend says, ‘ I’m going down the apples’, what does she mean? 2. If your colleague says, ‘You have a nice uncle’, what is she referring to? 3. If a friend says, ‘I like your barnet’, what is he really saying? 4. If your mum says to ‘Try the give and take’, what is she offering you? 5. If someone says, ‘Have a butchers at that’, what are they saying? 6. If you hear a pal say, ‘Check out my new pair of daisy roots’, what does she…

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Fun with Words

BACRONYMS: Acronyms in reverse

Bacronyms are regular words that can also double up as acronyms, says Roopa Banerjee Acronyms, we all know, but, bacronyms? To understand this figure of speech, you need to know more about acronyms. An acronym is an abbreviation formed from the initial letters of words and pronounced as a word — for example, NASA is an acronym for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, the space agency of the US. Contrarily, bacronyms are reverse acronyms — Back + Acronym = bacronym (also spelled as backronym). A bacronym is formed from a phrase whose initial letters spell out a particular word or words. For example Build Absolutely Nothing Anywhere Near Anybody (BANANA). A blog post on oxforddictorionaries.com says, “…while acronyms are formed from phrases or names that exist beforehand, a backronym is an acronym deliberately created to suit a word or words, either to create a memorable name, or as a fanciful explanation of a word’s origin.” Origins According to WordSpy, a website that tracks new words and phrases, bacronym was the brainchild of Meredith G. Williams, winner of the November 1983 edition of the Washington Post monthly neologism contest. She defined it as “the same as an acronym, except that the words are chosen to fit the letters”. Sometimes, bacronyms are expanded as mnemonics, or memory aids for spelling. For instance, you can help children remember the spelling of BECAUSE by the bacronym ‘Big Elephants Can’t Always Use Small Exits’ or ARITHMETIC if they think of it as ‘A Rat In The House May Eat The Ice Cream’. Doctors often find it beneficial to use bacronyms in their daily work. For instance, Apgar score is a rating system used to assess the health of newborn babies. This rating system was devised by Virginia Apgar, but the bacronym APGAR was coined in the US as: ‘Appearance, Pulse, Grimace, Activity and Respiration’. Bacronyms are catchy and attractive on posters and propaganda material. Some examples: • POLITICS — Power Over Lives Increases Turmoil In Civilised Societies • UNIVERSE — Underlying Nanoscopic Infrastructure Versus Endless Reality Spacetime Ether Witty and wise A dash of humour finds its way into every aspect of the English language, and bacronyms are no different. Sailors who regret joining the Navy have coined the backronym: ‘Never Again Volunteer Yourself!’ Weary owners of FORD motorcars have been known to joke ‘Fix Or Repair Daily’ while fans of Ford prefer to say ‘First On Race Day’. Similarly, FIAT is often termed ‘Fix It Again, Tom’! while the luxurious JAGUAR is derided as ‘Just Another Gearbox Under Annual Repair’. Software programmes get mocked too — Microsoft’s Bing is merrily described as ‘Because It is Not Google’. Many bacronyms also owe their origin to military usage. SPAM was coined as a sarcastic take on army food, ‘Something Posing As Meat’. It was coined by jaundiced soldiers sick of eating canned meat. During the 2003 invasion of Iraq, the British contribution was code-named ‘Operation Telic,’ meaning “a purposeful or defined action”. However, the term became known amongst…

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Fun with Words

Tackling ticklish tongue twisters

Can you say ‘Good blood, bad blood’ really, really fast? Try it or challenge your friends to do so. You’ll arrive at some hilarious, tongue-twisting variations! Such groups of words or sounds, typically of an alliterative kind, difficult to pronounce quickly and correctly, are called tongue twisters. According to Encyclopaedia Britannica, “tongue twisters are often passed on for generations, becoming a rich part of folklore”. Tongue twisters are challenging to enunciate, especially when repeated rapidly. With their repetitive use of similar sounds, words and syllables, they can trip up even the most articulate individuals. Popular tongue twisters The most popular tongue twister is ‘She sells sea-shells on the sea-shore’. This verse is said to be inspired by the life of English fossil collector and palaeontologist, Mary Anning (1799-1847) credited with the founding of modern palaeontology. The poet Terry Sullivan wrote this verse in her memory: She sells seashells on the seashore, The shells she sells are seashells, I am sure, So, if she sells seashells on the seashore, Then I am sure she sells seashore shells. ‘Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers’ is another popular tongue twister which has a real-world origin as well. Pierre Poivre (1719-1786) was a French pirate and horticulturalist. He used to steal from spice stores to grow them in his own garden and make exotic spices affordable to common people. (Cooking spices were called “peppers” in those days). Why tricky phrases are good for you Tongue twisters are used by speech therapists to help those suffering speech difficulties. In 2013, scientists from the University of California, San Francisco, published a study in the journal Nature, highlighting how tongue twisters helped the brain (through neural codes) enable smooth speech. Tongue twisters are also a great way to practice and improve pronunciation as well as fluency. The frequent alliteration involved helps learners of English to improve their accent. And, the repetition of the single sound due to alliteration is good practice for pronouncing diverse words the right way. Therefore, tongue twisters are used by actors, politicians, and public speakers to perfect their speaking skills. They also effectively help rhythm and tone, adding fun and humour to an otherwise dull set of drills. Levels of difficulty Sometimes, tongue twisters in regional dialects are tougher than in standard English. So, the difficulty level depends on how proficient the speaker is in that dialect. In standard English, an especially complex and convoluted example has been coined by American author William Poundstone: ‘The seething sea ceaseth and thus the seething sea sufficeth us.’ The high use of alliteration in this sentence makes it very difficult to repeat it rapidly. Here’s an enjoyable exercise that you can try with your family and friends. Recite these lines below as fast as you can. Get a stop watch and score sheet, and have some tongue twisting fun! Many an anemone sees an enemy anemone. Freshly-fried flying fish. A skunk sat on a stump and thunk the stump stunk, but the stump thunk…

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